土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程,它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱。它既指建設(shè)的對(duì)象,即建造在地上,地下,水中的工程設(shè)施,也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測(cè),設(shè)計(jì)施工,保養(yǎng),維修等專業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類社會(huì)的進(jìn)步而發(fā)展,至

we first study the application of the protection pipe sliding method for the construction. This paper introduces the protection pipe outside sliding method installation "steel set of directly buried steam pipeline s

3.3.2 in the assembly process, the class and group leaders and assembly should carefully read the map and record important data, processes, and installation of pipelines to the scope, found problems in a

與成本控制,最重要的決議的質(zhì)量,在設(shè)備完成設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃階段,而不是在施工期間。正是在這種初步階段,即組件配置、物料規(guī)范和功能性能決定。施工過程的質(zhì)量控制,由大量的確保符合原先的設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃的決定。

Construction Safty:Safty in construction is the most important item in all construction items. it covers all the safty matters during the operation, including management, finance and logistic system et al.The gove

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da

我們比以往任何時(shí)候更多地依賴于團(tuán)隊(duì)建設(shè)承包商和發(fā)明人誰設(shè)計(jì)和建造以及維護(hù)復(fù)雜的環(huán)境，環(huán)繞著我們的日常生活。一個(gè)民間的施工隊(duì)伍的工作/工程師以上僅僅是這些基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)方面。他們有很多活動(dòng)，包括起草，決策，人機(jī)交互，通

求一篇施工方面文章及英文翻譯 謝

Civil Engineering gives us Quality of Life !翻譯：土木工程是軍事工程學(xué)演變而來的工程專業(yè)的一個(gè)最古老分支。許多我們生活中被認(rèn)為是理所當(dāng)然的重要事物都是土木工程的產(chǎn)物。為我們?nèi)粘Ｉ罟?yīng)電力的水壩和發(fā)電站，它們的

Civil engineering is that branch ofengineering which aims to provide a comfortable and save living for the people.As is known to us all, It has a long history, but it is also full of vigorous.Civil engin

civil engineering specialty。短語(yǔ) 1、I studied civil e、ngineering specialty 我學(xué)的是土木工程專業(yè) 2、architectural civil engineering specialty 建筑工程專業(yè) 3、civil engineering specialty group 建筑工程技術(shù)專業(yè)群 例句

civil engineering Profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general public, including bridges, canals, dams, harbors, lighthouses, roads, tunnels, and environmental works (e.g., water-

求英語(yǔ)介紹土木工程專業(yè)

平均年薪為84,140美元。與工科中的機(jī)械工程($84,770)和環(huán)境工程($85,140)不相上下，比電子工程($91,810)略低。關(guān)于美國(guó)土木工程專業(yè)申請(qǐng)及就業(yè)就為大家介紹到這里，希望對(duì)申請(qǐng)者能夠有所幫助。

Civil Engineering gives us Quality of Life !翻譯：土木工程是軍事工程學(xué)演變而來的工程專業(yè)的一個(gè)最古老分支。許多我們生活中被認(rèn)為是理所當(dāng)然的重要事物都是土木工程的產(chǎn)物。為我們?nèi)粘Ｉ罟?yīng)電力的水壩和發(fā)電站，它們的

1、土木工程專業(yè)簡(jiǎn)介 土木工程（英文：Civil Engineering）是建造各類工程設(shè)施的科學(xué)技術(shù)的統(tǒng)稱。它既指所應(yīng)用的材料、設(shè)備和所進(jìn)行的勘測(cè)、設(shè)計(jì)、施工、保養(yǎng)、維修等技術(shù)活動(dòng)，也指工程建設(shè)的對(duì)象。即建造在地上或地下、陸上

三、土木工程工程碩士(M.Eng in Civil Engineering)工程碩士(ME)學(xué)位為學(xué)生成為執(zhí)業(yè)工程師提供了充分的準(zhǔn)備。弗吉尼亞大學(xué)的土木與環(huán)境工程系(CEE)為ME學(xué)位提供四個(gè)專業(yè)方向。環(huán)境與水資源工程 結(jié)構(gòu)工程 交通運(yùn)輸工程 基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施

Transport engineering，側(cè)重于海洋方面的。MSc Civil Engineering只招15-20人，想申請(qǐng)的一定趁早，晚了就沒有位置了。根據(jù)2016年CUG，該大學(xué)土木工程專業(yè)英國(guó)排名第20。二、申請(qǐng)條件 MSc Civil Engineering 均分要求： 2

土木工程 設(shè)計(jì)和修建各種公用建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)工程設(shè)施的科學(xué)技術(shù)，這些工程包括橋梁、水壩、港口、燈塔、道路、隧道和環(huán)境工程(如供水系統(tǒng))。現(xiàn)代這個(gè)領(lǐng)域還包括：發(fā)電廠、航空港、化學(xué)處理廠和污水處理設(shè)備等?，F(xiàn)在土木工程涉及的范圍

土木工程專業(yè)介紹(英文版)

Civil engineering is constructed in various construction projects referred to. It is intended to " Military " project and corresponding. In English, Civil Engineering also includes water conservancy engineering, port

土木工程是中國(guó)普通高等學(xué)校本科專業(yè)。Civil engineering is an undergraduate major in Chinese colleges and universities.土木工程的目的是形成人類生產(chǎn)或生活所需要的、功能良好且舒適美觀的空間和通道。The purpose of civil

你知道用英文怎樣告訴他人,工程師和土木工程師是干什么的嗎?SO,here:Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals,

土木工程是一個(gè)概念，涉及的設(shè)計(jì)，建造和保養(yǎng)身體和自然的建筑環(huán)境。民間建筑和工程的行為，包括橋梁，道路，運(yùn)河， **，水壩和其他建筑物。這些都只是僅是民用建設(shè)工程，是幾個(gè)例子。土木工程是最古老的工程后，軍事工程學(xué)科

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程，它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱。它既指建設(shè)的對(duì)象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程設(shè)施，也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測(cè)，設(shè)計(jì)施工，保養(yǎng)，維修等專業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類社

Build a project facilities to want to pass commonly survey, design and construction three stages, need to use engineering geological prospecting, geological investigation Hydrological geology exploration and engineering s

從土木工程專業(yè)英語(yǔ)中學(xué)到什么英文短文

Build a project facilities to want to pass commonly survey, design and construction three stages, need to use engineering geological prospecting, geological investigation Hydrological geology exploration and engineering

你知道用英文怎樣告訴他人,工程師和土木工程師是干什么的嗎?SO,here:Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between

lack of marketing mechanism is currently the Civil Engineering Research Institute of Gansu high-level management positions, there is no marketing functions, shown in Figure 1, this senior management of absence has brought a

What kind of interesting work are other Civil Engineers doing right now?I'm working on an excavation for a building that is part of a Physics Experiment. We blasted our way 80ft deep into granite. The ho

Civil engineering is the oldest branch of the profession of engineering after military engineering. Many of the important things in our lives that we take for granted are the product of civil engineering.The con

Civil engineering is constructed in various construction projects referred to. It is intended to " Military " project and corresponding. In English, Civil Engineering also includes water conservancy engineering, port

土木工程英語(yǔ)求職信范文篇一：Distinguished leadership of your pany:Hello!Thank you very much for sparing the time to review my cover letter, I wish to give me the opportunity. As a Civil Engineering Bridge gr

求土木工程專業(yè)英語(yǔ)作文一片,內(nèi)容如下

土木工程是中國(guó)普通高等學(xué)校本科專業(yè)。 Civil engineering is an undergraduate major in Chinese colleges and universities. 土木工程的目的是形成人類生產(chǎn)或生活所需要的、功能良好且舒適美觀的空間和通道。 The purpose of civil engineering is to form a comfortable and beautiful space and channel with good functions required by human production or life. 它既是物質(zhì)方面的需要，也有象征精神方面的需求。 It is not only a material need,but also a spiritual need. 隨著社會(huì)的發(fā)展，工程結(jié)構(gòu)越來越大型化、復(fù)雜化，超高層建筑、特大型橋梁、巨型大壩、復(fù)雜的地鐵系統(tǒng)不斷涌現(xiàn)，滿足人們的生活需求，同時(shí)也演變?yōu)樯鐣?huì)實(shí)力的象征。 With the development of society, engineering structures are becoming more and more large and complex. Super high-rise buildings,especially large bridges, large dams and complex subway systems are emerging to meet people's living needs. At the same time,they have evolved into a symbol of social strength. 土木工程需要解決的根本問題是工程的安全，使結(jié)構(gòu)能夠抵抗各種自然或人為的作用力。 The fundamental problem to be solved in civil engineering is the safety of the project,so that the structure can resist various natural or man-made operation capabilities. 任何一個(gè)工程結(jié)構(gòu)都要承受自身重量，以及承受使用荷載和風(fēng)力的作用，濕度變化也會(huì)對(duì)土木工程結(jié)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生力作用。 Any engineering structure must bear its own weight and accept the action of service load and wind. The change of humidity will also have a hard work on the civil engineering structure. 在地震區(qū)，土木工程結(jié)構(gòu)還應(yīng)考慮抵御地震作用。 In the earthquake area,the civil engineering structure should also consider resisting earthquake. 此外，爆炸、振動(dòng)等人為作用對(duì)土木工程的影響也不能忽略。 In addition,the impact of explosion and vibration on civil engineering can not be ignored.
civil engineering Profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general public, including bridges, canals, dams, harbors, lighthouses, roads, tunnels, and environmental works (e.g., water-supply systems). The modern field includes power plants, aircraft and airports, chemical-processing plants, and water-treatment facilities. Civil engineering today involves site investigations and feasibility studies, structural design and analysis, construction, and facilities maintenance. The design of engineering works requires the application of design theory from many fields (e.g., hydraulics, thermodynamics, nuclear physics). Research in structural analysis and the technology of materials such as steel and concrete has opened the way for new concepts and greater economy of materials. The engineer's analysis of a building problem determines the structural system to be used. Structural designs are rigorously analyzed by computers to determine if they will withstand loads and natural forces. 土木工程 設(shè)計(jì)和修建各種公用建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)工程設(shè)施的科學(xué)技術(shù)，這些工程包括橋梁、水壩、港口、燈塔、道路、隧道和環(huán)境工程(如供水系統(tǒng))。現(xiàn)代這個(gè)領(lǐng)域還包括：發(fā)電廠、航空港、化學(xué)處理廠和污水處理設(shè)備等?，F(xiàn)在土木工程涉及的范圍還包括場(chǎng)地的測(cè)量和研究、結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)和分析、建造，以及設(shè)備的維護(hù)。工程設(shè)計(jì)的工作需要應(yīng)用許多方面的設(shè)計(jì)理論(如水力學(xué)、熱力學(xué)和核物理等)。結(jié)構(gòu)分析和材料技術(shù)的研發(fā)(諸如鋼和混凝土)已開發(fā)出更新穎的觀念和更經(jīng)濟(jì)的材料。工程師在分析一種建筑問題時(shí)，就已決定該用何種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)。計(jì)算機(jī)可精確分析結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)以判定結(jié)構(gòu)體是否承受得起載重量和自然力量。
1.英語(yǔ)還是得學(xué)，不管是否是專業(yè)英語(yǔ)或是日常英語(yǔ)。這對(duì)于你以后的工作生活都非常有用。 2.工作很少用到英語(yǔ)的，主要還是得看你的公司的業(yè)務(wù)。類似于外資企業(yè)的話是要看英語(yǔ)口試的。 3.大三一年，學(xué)好自己的專業(yè)；準(zhǔn)備起注冊(cè)建造師和注冊(cè)結(jié)構(gòu)師的考試，爭(zhēng)取在大四或畢業(yè)時(shí)能考出來。另外，如果能學(xué)個(gè)會(huì)計(jì)、概預(yù)算或工程管理、工程經(jīng)濟(jì)更好。 4.如果不讀研的話暑假找份好實(shí)習(xí)吧。
《土木工程專業(yè)英語(yǔ)》既可作為土木工程專業(yè)本科生教材，也可供土木工程專業(yè)的教師及工程技術(shù)人員參考、閱讀。
civil engineering Profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general public, including bridges, canals, dams, harbors, lighthouses, roads, tunnels, and environmental works (e.g., water-supply systems). The modern field includes power plants, aircraft and airports, chemical-processing plants, and water-treatment facilities. Civil engineering today involves site investigations and feasibility studies, structural design and analysis, construction, and facilities maintenance. The design of engineering works requires the application of design theory from many fields (e.g., hydraulics, thermodynamics, nuclear physics). Research in structural analysis and the technology of materials such as steel and concrete has opened the way for new concepts and greater economy of materials. The engineer's analysis of a building problem determines the structural system to be used. Structural designs are rigorously analyzed by computers to determine if they will withstand loads and natural forces. 土木工程 設(shè)計(jì)和修建各種公用建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)工程設(shè)施的科學(xué)技術(shù)，這些工程包括橋梁、水壩、港口、燈塔、道路、隧道和環(huán)境工程(如供水系統(tǒng))?，F(xiàn)代這個(gè)領(lǐng)域還包括：發(fā)電廠、航空港、化學(xué)處理廠和污水處理設(shè)備等。現(xiàn)在土木工程涉及的范圍還包括場(chǎng)地的測(cè)量和研究、結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)和分析、建造，以及設(shè)備的維護(hù)。工程設(shè)計(jì)的工作需要應(yīng)用許多方面的設(shè)計(jì)理論(如水力學(xué)、熱力學(xué)和核物理等)。結(jié)構(gòu)分析和材料技術(shù)的研發(fā)(諸如鋼和混凝土)已開發(fā)出更新穎的觀念和更經(jīng)濟(jì)的材料。工程師在分析一種建筑問題時(shí)，就已決定該用何種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)。計(jì)算機(jī)可精確分析結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)以判定結(jié)構(gòu)體是否承受得起載重量和自然力量。
《土木工程專業(yè)英語(yǔ)》共18章54篇文章，每篇文章都附有疑難詞匯、相關(guān)練習(xí)題及參考譯文和練習(xí)答案。內(nèi)容涉及土木工程、交通工程、建筑材料、現(xiàn)代建筑、荷載及設(shè)計(jì)方法、橋梁結(jié)構(gòu)、建筑施工、土力學(xué)、公路工程、環(huán)境工程、供熱與通風(fēng)工程、施工管理、項(xiàng)目管理、房地產(chǎn)、國(guó)際工程管理等。
土木工程是中國(guó)普通高等學(xué)校本科專業(yè)。 Civil engineering is an undergraduate major in Chinese colleges and universities. 土木工程的目的是形成人類生產(chǎn)或生活所需要的、功能良好且舒適美觀的空間和通道。 The purpose of civil engineering is to form a comfortable and beautiful space and channel with good functions required by human production or life. 它既是物質(zhì)方面的需要，也有象征精神方面的需求。 It is not only a material need,but also a spiritual need. 隨著社會(huì)的發(fā)展，工程結(jié)構(gòu)越來越大型化、復(fù)雜化，超高層建筑、特大型橋梁、巨型大壩、復(fù)雜的地鐵系統(tǒng)不斷涌現(xiàn)，滿足人們的生活需求，同時(shí)也演變?yōu)樯鐣?huì)實(shí)力的象征。 With the development of society, engineering structures are becoming more and more large and complex. Super high-rise buildings,especially large bridges, large dams and complex subway systems are emerging to meet people's living needs. At the same time,they have evolved into a symbol of social strength. 土木工程需要解決的根本問題是工程的安全，使結(jié)構(gòu)能夠抵抗各種自然或人為的作用力。 The fundamental problem to be solved in civil engineering is the safety of the project,so that the structure can resist various natural or man-made operation capabilities. 任何一個(gè)工程結(jié)構(gòu)都要承受自身重量，以及承受使用荷載和風(fēng)力的作用，濕度變化也會(huì)對(duì)土木工程結(jié)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生力作用。 Any engineering structure must bear its own weight and accept the action of service load and wind. The change of humidity will also have a hard work on the civil engineering structure. 在地震區(qū)，土木工程結(jié)構(gòu)還應(yīng)考慮抵御地震作用。 In the earthquake area,the civil engineering structure should also consider resisting earthquake. 此外，爆炸、振動(dòng)等人為作用對(duì)土木工程的影響也不能忽略。 In addition,the impact of explosion and vibration on civil engineering can not be ignored.
Civil engineering is constructed in various construction projects referred to. It is intended to " Military " project and corresponding. In English, Civil Engineering also includes water conservancy engineering, port engineering, and in our country, water conservancy engineering and port engineering and civil engineering has also become a very close relative independent branch. Civil engineering refers to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground, underground, underwater engineering facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional and technical.
Health care A new prescription for the poor 為貧窮者新開的處方 America is developing a two-tier health system, one for those with private insurance, the other for the less well-off 美國(guó)正在發(fā)展一個(gè)雙重的健康系統(tǒng)，一重是為那些有個(gè)人保險(xiǎn)的人群，而另一重則是為那些不那么富裕的人群 Oct 8th 2011 | NEW YORK | from the print edition “IT’S time for Dancing with the Stars!”, a woman announces enthusiastically. At this New York health centre, wedged between housing projects to the east and Chinatown to the west, “dancing with the stars” means dancing with a physical therapist. An old man stands up with a nurse and begins a determined samba. “是時(shí)候和明星一起跳舞了！”一位女士滿懷熱情地宣告。在這個(gè)坐落于房屋工程的西面，唐人街東面的紐約健康中心，“和明星起舞”的意思是和一位物理治療師跳舞。一位老者和一個(gè)護(hù)士站起來，開始跳事先確定好的桑巴舞。 Comprehensive Care Management (CCM), which runs this centre, tries to keep old people active. To do so, explains Joseph Healy, the chief operating officer, is in the company’s best interest. The government pays CCM a capped rate for the care of its members. If someone gets sick, his health costs rise and the company’s margin shrinks. Mr Healy argues that the system is the best way to provide good care at a low cost. Increasingly others seem to agree. 經(jīng)營(yíng)這個(gè)中心的綜合護(hù)理管理部門（CCM）努力保持老人們的活力。約瑟夫-海莉，首席運(yùn)營(yíng)官解釋說，這樣做符合公司 的最佳利益。政府給這個(gè)部門一個(gè)封頂?shù)慕蛸N來讓他們照顧這些人。如果有人生病了，他的健康成本就會(huì)上升，公司的利潤(rùn)就會(huì)萎縮。海莉先生確定說這個(gè)系統(tǒng)能夠 在一個(gè)低成本上提供最佳的護(hù)理。其他人也逐漸同意這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)。 Medicaid, America’s health programme for the poor, is in the process of being transformed. Over the next three years, New York will move its entire Medicaid population into “managed care”, paying companies a set rate to tend to the poor, rather than paying a fee for each service. New York is not alone. States from California to Mississippi are expanding managed care. It is the culmination of a steady shift in the way most poor Americans receive their health-care treatment. 公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助，即美國(guó)的窮人健康計(jì)劃，正在被改造的過程中。在接下來的 三年內(nèi)，紐約將把整個(gè)接受窮人健康計(jì)劃的人群納入“管理關(guān)懷”之中，付給公司們一個(gè)事先定好的費(fèi)用來照顧那些窮人，而不是按照項(xiàng)目來付費(fèi)。紐約不是唯一這 樣做的州。加州，密西西比州正在拓展管理關(guān)懷計(jì)劃。這代表一種正在進(jìn)行中的穩(wěn)步轉(zhuǎn)變，即大部分貧窮美國(guó)人接受健康關(guān)懷方式的轉(zhuǎn)變。 Medicaid is America’s sin*** biggest health programme. This year roughly one in five Americans will be covered by Medicaid for a month or more. It gobbles more federal and local money than any state programme, other than education. Costs will rise even more when Barack Obama’s health-care reform expands the programme by easing eligibility rules in 2014. Congress’s “supercommittee” is already considering cuts. However, there are more immediate pressures behind the present drive for change. 公 共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助是美國(guó)最大的單一健康計(jì)劃。今年，五個(gè)美國(guó)人中的一個(gè)就會(huì)被納入該計(jì)劃一個(gè)月或更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間。除了教育之外，它比其他任何州的財(cái)政計(jì)劃耗去更多聯(lián)邦 和地方的經(jīng)費(fèi)。當(dāng)2014年奧巴馬的健康保險(xiǎn)改革放寬適用人群而使整個(gè)計(jì)劃更加龐大的時(shí)候，成本將會(huì)進(jìn)一步上升。眾議院的“超級(jí)委員會(huì)”已經(jīng)在考慮削減經(jīng) 費(fèi)。然而，選擇這種變化，將會(huì)有更多即刻的壓力存在。 Enrolment in Medicaid jumped during the downturn, from 42.7m in December 2007 to 50.3m in June 2010. Mr Obama’s stimulus bill helped to pay for some of this, but that money has dried up. Faced with gaping deficits, some desperate governors slashed payments to hospitals and doctors, or refused to pay for trips to the dentist or oculist. But much the most important result has been structural: the expansion of managed care. 公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃的參與人數(shù)在經(jīng)濟(jì)滑坡期間從2007年 12月的 4270萬人跳到了2010年6月的5030萬人。奧巴馬先生的經(jīng)濟(jì)刺激經(jīng)費(fèi)能夠幫助付掉其中的一部分，但是錢已經(jīng)被用光。面對(duì)資金短缺，一些絕望的州長(zhǎng) 砍掉了給醫(yī)院和醫(yī)生的補(bǔ)助，或是拒絕支付牙醫(yī)和眼科醫(yī)生的旅行費(fèi)用。但是，更多地，最重要的結(jié)果是結(jié)構(gòu)上的：管理關(guān)懷的拓展。 States have dabbled in managed care for decades. The trend accelerated in the 1990s, with the share of Medicaid patients under this form of care reaching 72% by 2009. Now, however, there is a strong push for the remainder. States that did not have managed care, such as Louisiana, are introducing it. Other states are extending it to people previously deemed off limits: California and New York, for example, are moving the elderly and disabled into that system of care. Texas is targeting more than 400,000 Medicaid beneficiaries in the Rio Grande Valley. Local politicians had resisted the move, nervous that care might deteriorate. But the yawning deficit meant that they were overruled. 各個(gè)州涉足管理關(guān)懷已經(jīng)有幾 十年的歷史了。這個(gè)趨勢(shì)在90年代得到**發(fā)展，在2009年前使用這種護(hù)理方式的公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助病人占到了72%?，F(xiàn)在，對(duì)于剩下的人，這也是很強(qiáng)的推動(dòng) 力。像路易斯安那州這樣沒有管理關(guān)懷的州正在引進(jìn)管理關(guān)懷。其他州也把這個(gè)拓展到原先被認(rèn)為不適用的人群：舉例說像加州和紐約州，正在把老人和殘障人士納 入這個(gè)系統(tǒng)中，德州的目標(biāo)是在格蘭德河谷超過400000公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助收益人群。地方政治家反對(duì)這個(gè)舉動(dòng)，他們擔(dān)心這個(gè)護(hù)理系統(tǒng)將會(huì)變質(zhì)。但是巨大的赤字 意味著他們的觀點(diǎn)注定要被批駁。 The result is a country with two distinct tiers of health care. Most Americans with private insurance are still horrified by thoughts of health-management organisations and prefer to pay fees for each medical service. For the poor, managed care is becoming the norm. 結(jié)果就是一個(gè)國(guó)家有兩套截然不同的健康保險(xiǎn)系統(tǒng)。大多數(shù)有個(gè)人保險(xiǎn)的美國(guó)人仍舊害怕那些健康管理組織的想法而寧愿為單獨(dú)的醫(yī)療服務(wù)付費(fèi)。對(duì)于窮人來說，管理關(guān)懷已經(jīng)成為一種常規(guī)。 Advocates of managed care have high expectations. First, they hope that it will make costs more predictable. Second, they believe that the change will improve patients’ health. In managed care, a patient has a network of doctors and specialists. If the programme works properly, doctors can monitor all aspects of care, in contrast to the fragmented fee-for-service system. The contracts that states have with firms can set standards for quality. Texas, for instance, will cut 5% from a company’s payment if it does not meet what is required. 管理關(guān)懷的鼓吹者有著很高的 期待。首先，他們希望這能讓成本變得可以預(yù)測(cè)，其次，他們相信，這個(gè)改變可以改善病人的健康。在管理關(guān)懷中，一個(gè)病人有一個(gè)由醫(yī)生和專家組成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。如果 這個(gè)計(jì)劃運(yùn)行良好，醫(yī)生可以監(jiān)測(cè)關(guān)懷的各個(gè)方面，相對(duì)于分離的的按服務(wù)付錢的系統(tǒng)來說。州政府和公司的合同可以為質(zhì)量定下標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。德州，舉例說，將會(huì)在付款 中扣除5%如果公司沒有達(dá)到要求的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。 The next step is to integrate care for those eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare, the federal programme for the old. These “duals” account for almost 40% of Medicaid’s costs and just 15% of its population. “If managed care can really deliver better care than fee-for-service”, says Diane Rowland, chair of the commission that advises Congress on Medicaid, “this is the population that could prove it.” 下一步是整合那些同時(shí)符合公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助和長(zhǎng)者醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃（聯(lián)邦老人醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助）的人群。這些“雙符合”人群占據(jù)了將近40%的公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ) 助成本和僅僅15%的人口數(shù)量?！叭绻芾黻P(guān)懷能真正比按項(xiàng)目付費(fèi)帶來更好的服務(wù)”，戴安-羅蘭德，委員會(huì)（指導(dǎo)國(guó)會(huì)在公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助政策上進(jìn)行決策）主任 說：“這是一群能證明管理關(guān)懷可行的人?！? But some, such as Norma Vescovo, are sceptical. As the head of the non-profit Independent Living Centre of Southern California (ILCSC), Ms Vescovo serves Medicaid patients with severe health problems. Over the years she has often sued California on policies that she thinks will hurt her vulnerable clients. On October 3rd her case moved to the Supreme Court. 但是一些人，例如像諾瑪-凡斯科夫就對(duì)此表示懷疑。作為非盈利的南加州獨(dú)立生活中心主任，凡斯科夫女士服務(wù)于那些有嚴(yán)重健康問題的接受公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助的病人。在這些年間，她經(jīng)?？馗婕又菡谝恍┱呱蠒?huì)傷害她的一些脆弱的客戶。在10月3日，她的案子被移到了上訴法院。 The outcome of Douglas v Independent Living Centre will have profound implications for the future of Medicaid. Ms Vescovo’s suit concerns cuts to hospitals and doctors. But the case will also guide the course of managed care. If ILCSC and its co-plaintiffs win, private groups will continue to be able to challenge states on policies they think violate federal Medicaid law. Ms Vescovo, who argues that California’s payment cuts would eviscerate her clients’ access to services, worries that under managed care the disabled might not be able to see the specialists they need. 道格拉斯 v 獨(dú)立生活中心的結(jié)果將會(huì)對(duì)公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助有深遠(yuǎn)的意義。凡斯科夫女士的訴訟影響到醫(yī)院和醫(yī)生的津貼削減。但是這個(gè)案子將會(huì)引領(lǐng)管理關(guān)懷的進(jìn)程。如果中心和其 他原告勝訴，私人團(tuán)體將會(huì)繼續(xù)在那些他們認(rèn)為違反聯(lián)邦法律的政策上挑戰(zhàn)州政府。凡斯科夫女士認(rèn)為說加州的支付削減計(jì)劃會(huì)讓她的客戶失去得到服務(wù)的機(jī)會(huì)，她 還擔(dān)心，在管理關(guān)懷之下，那些殘障人士可能不能見到那些他們需要的專家。 The question is how to supervise the experiments with managed care that are being carried out in various states. To date, Medicaid beneficiaries have been able to challenge the states in court. However, if the Supreme Court rules against ILCSC, that avenue will be closed. The Centres for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) technically can intervene if states do not provide proper access to care. In reality, CMS has few tools to do so. 問 題是怎么監(jiān)管在不同州試運(yùn)行的管理關(guān)懷。到目前為止，公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助受益者已經(jīng)能夠在法庭中挑戰(zhàn)政府。然而，如果上訴法庭結(jié)果不利于中心，那么這條路將會(huì)被 關(guān)閉。如果州政府沒有提供合適的關(guān)懷的話，公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助和長(zhǎng)者醫(yī)療關(guān)懷中心理論上是能對(duì)此進(jìn)行干涉，但事實(shí)上，他們沒有太多辦法。 “I’m a big fan of managed care”, says Sara Rosenbaum, a professor at George Washington University, “but this transformation may happen with almost no federal oversight.” Medicaid beneficiaries are vulnerable, in worse health than Americans as a whole. Companies may strug*** to cut costs and provide good care as well. If states do not draft their contracts properly, or fail to be vigilant in monitoring patients’ health, their experiment in managed care could be a disaster. On the other hand, if states are careful they could provide an answer to the question that has vexed America for years: how to provide good, cheap health care. “我是 管理關(guān)懷的擁護(hù)者”，薩拉-羅森博姆，一位喬治華盛頓大學(xué)教授說，“但是這種轉(zhuǎn)變可能在沒有聯(lián)邦監(jiān)管的情況下發(fā)生?！惫册t(yī)療補(bǔ)助的受益者和你脆弱，健康 程度整體上比一般美國(guó)人要差。公司可能在削減成本的同時(shí)掙扎著同樣提供良好的服務(wù)。如果州政府們不好好起草他們的合同，或沒有警覺地監(jiān)控病人的健康的話， 他們?cè)诠芾黻P(guān)懷上的實(shí)驗(yàn)可能會(huì)是一場(chǎng)災(zāi)難。另一方面，如果州政府們認(rèn)真的話，他們能為那個(gè)困擾美國(guó)人多年的問題提供答案，即怎么提供優(yōu)質(zhì)的便宜的健康關(guān) 懷。
Electric Power Systems 電力系統(tǒng) The modern society depends on the electricity supply more heavily than ever before. 現(xiàn)代社會(huì)的電力供應(yīng)依賴于更多地比以往任何時(shí)候。 It can not be imagined what the world should be if the electricity supply were interrupted all over the world. 它無法想象的世界應(yīng)該是什么，如果電力供應(yīng)中斷了世界各地。 Electric power systems (or electric energy systems), providing electricity to the modern society, have become indispensable components of the industrial world. 電力系統(tǒng)（或電力能源系統(tǒng)），提供電力到現(xiàn)代社會(huì)，已成為不可缺少的組成部分產(chǎn)業(yè)界的。 The first complete electric power system (comprising a generator, cable, fuse, meter, and loads) was built by Thomas Edison – the historic Pearl Street Station in New York City which began operation in September 1882. 第一個(gè)完整的電力系統(tǒng)（包括發(fā)電機(jī)，電纜，熔斷器，計(jì)量，并加載）的托馬斯愛迪生所建-站紐約市珍珠街的歷史始于1882年9月運(yùn)作。 This was a DC system consisting of a steam-engine-driven DC generator supplying power to 59 customers within an area roughly 1.5 km in radius. The load, which consisted entirely of incandescent lamps, was supplied at 110 V through an underground cable system. 這是一個(gè)半徑直流系統(tǒng)組成的一個(gè)蒸汽發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)的直流發(fā)電機(jī)面積約1.5公里至59供電范圍內(nèi)的客戶。負(fù)載，其中包括完全的白熾燈，為V提供110通過地下電纜系統(tǒng)。 Within a few years similar systems were in operation in most large cities throughout the world. With the development of motors by Frank Sprague in 1884, motor loads were added to such systems. This was the beginning of what would develop into one of the largest industries in the world. In spite of the initial widespread use of DC systems, they were almost completely superseded by AC systems. By 1886, the limitations of DC systems were becoming increasingly apparent. They could deliver power only a short distance from generators. 在一個(gè)類似的系統(tǒng)在大多數(shù)大城市在世界各地運(yùn)行數(shù)年。隨著馬達(dá)的弗蘭克斯普拉格發(fā)展在1884年，電機(jī)負(fù)載被添加到這些系統(tǒng)。這是什么開始發(fā)展成為世界上最大的產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。在最初的直流系統(tǒng)廣泛使用盡管如此，他們幾乎完全被空調(diào)系統(tǒng)所取代。到1886年，直流系統(tǒng)的局限性也日益明顯。他們可以提供功率只有很短的距離從發(fā)電機(jī)。 To keep transmission power losses ( I 2 R ) and voltage drops to acceptable levels, voltage levels had to be high for long-distance power transmission. Such high voltages were not acceptable for generation and consumption of power; therefore, a convenient means for voltage transformation became a necessity. 為了保持發(fā)射功率損失（我2 R）和電壓下降到可接受的水平，電壓等級(jí)，必須長(zhǎng)途輸電高。如此高的電壓不發(fā)電和電力消耗可以接受的，因此，電壓轉(zhuǎn)換成為一個(gè)方便的手段的必要性。 The development of the transformer and AC transmission by L. Gaulard and JD Gibbs of Paris, France, led to AC electric power systems. 在發(fā)展的變壓器，法國(guó)和交流輸電由L.巴黎戈拉爾和JD吉布斯導(dǎo)致交流電力系統(tǒng)。 In 1889, the first AC transmission line in North America was put into operation in Oregon between Willamette Falls and Portland. 1889年，第一次在北美交流傳輸線將在俄勒岡州波特蘭之間威拉梅特大瀑布和實(shí)施。 It was a sin***-phase line transmitting power at 4,000 V over a distance of 21 km. With the development of polyphase systems by Nikola Tesla, the AC system became even more attractive. By 1888, Tesla held several patents on AC motors, generators, transformers, and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents to these early inventions, and they formed the basis of the present-day AC systems.這是一個(gè)單相線路傳輸功率為4,000公里，超過21 V系統(tǒng)的距離。隨著交流的發(fā)展多相系統(tǒng)由尼古拉特斯拉，成為更具吸引力的。通過1888年，特斯拉舉行交流多項(xiàng)專利電動(dòng)機(jī)，發(fā)電機(jī)，變壓器和輸電系統(tǒng)。西屋公司購(gòu)買了這些早期的發(fā)明專利，并形成了系統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)，現(xiàn)在的交流。 In the 1890s, there was considerable controversy over whether the electric utility industry should be standardized on DC or AC. By the turn of the century, the AC system had won out over the DC system for the following reasons: 在19世紀(jì)90年代，有很大的爭(zhēng)議或交流電力行業(yè)是否應(yīng)該統(tǒng)一于直流。到了世紀(jì)之交的，在交流系統(tǒng)贏得了原因出在下面的直流系統(tǒng)為： （1）Voltage levels can be easily transformed in AC systems, thus providing the flexibility for use of different voltages for generation, transmission, and consumption. （1）電壓水平可以很容易地改變了空調(diào)系統(tǒng)，從而提供了傳輸?shù)撵`活性，發(fā)電用不同的電壓和消費(fèi)。 （2）AC generators are much simpler than DC generators. （2）交流發(fā)電機(jī)簡(jiǎn)單得多比直流發(fā)電機(jī)。 （3）AC motors are much simpler and cheaper than DC motors. （三）交流電機(jī)和電機(jī)便宜簡(jiǎn)單得多，比直流。 The first three-phase line in North America went into operation in 1893——a 2,300 V, 12 km line in southern California. 前三個(gè)階段的美國(guó)北線投產(chǎn)于1893年- 1 2300五，南加州12公里路線研究。 In the early period of AC power transmission, frequency was not standardized. 在電力傳輸初期交流，頻率不規(guī)范。 Many different frequencies were in use: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133 Hz. 有許多不同頻率的使用：25，50，60，125，和133赫茲。 This poses a problem for interconnection. Eventually 60 Hz was adopted as standard in North America, although 50 Hz was used in many other countries. 這對(duì)互連的問題。最后60赫茲標(biāo)準(zhǔn)獲得通過，成為美國(guó)在北美，雖然是50赫茲在許多其他國(guó)家使用。 The increasing need for transmitting large amounts of power over longer distance created an incentive to use progressively high voltage levels. To avoid the proliferation of an unlimited number of voltages, the industry has standardized voltage levels. In USA, the standards are 115, 138, 161, and 230 kV for the high voltage (HV) class, and 345, 500 and 765 kV for the extra-high voltage (EHV) class. In China, the voltage levels in use are 10, 35, 110 for HV class, and 220, 330 (only in Northwest China) and 500 kV for EHV class . 較長(zhǎng)的距離越來越需要大量的電力傳輸多激勵(lì)他們逐步使用高壓的水平。為了避免電壓增殖數(shù)量無限，業(yè)界標(biāo)準(zhǔn)電壓水平。在美國(guó)，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是115，138， 161，和230千伏的高電壓（高壓）類，345，500和765千伏級(jí)的特高電壓（超高壓）。在中國(guó)，各級(jí)使用電壓為10，35，110級(jí)高壓， 220，中國(guó)330（僅在西北）和500千伏超高壓類。 The first 750 kVtransmission line will be built in the near future in Northwest China. 第一個(gè)750 kVtransmission線將建在不久的將來在中國(guó)西北地區(qū)。 With the development of the AC/DC converting equipment, high voltage DC (HVDC) transmission systems have become more attractive and economical in special situations. 隨著交流的發(fā)展/直流轉(zhuǎn)換設(shè)備，高壓直流高壓直流（HVDC）傳輸系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)成為更具吸引力的經(jīng)濟(jì)和情況特殊。 The HVDC transmission can be used for transmission of large blocks of power over long distance, and providing an asynchronous link between systems where AC interconnection would be impractical because of system stability consideration or because nominal frequencies of the systems are different. 在高壓直流輸電可用于輸電塊以上的大長(zhǎng)途電話，并提供不同系統(tǒng)間的異步連接在AC聯(lián)網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)將是不切實(shí)際的，因?yàn)榉€(wěn)定考慮，或因標(biāo)稱頻率的系統(tǒng)。 The basic requirement to a power system is to provide an uninterrupted energy supply to customers with acceptable voltages and frequency. 基本要求到電源系統(tǒng)是提供一個(gè)不間斷的能源供應(yīng)，以客戶可接受的電壓和頻率。 Because electricity can not be massively stored under a simple and economic way, the production and consumption of electricity must be done simultaneously. A fault or misoperation in any stages of a power system may possibly result in interruption of electricity supply to the customers. 由于電力無法大量?jī)?chǔ)存在一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的方法和經(jīng)濟(jì)，電力的生產(chǎn)和消費(fèi)必須同時(shí)進(jìn)行。系統(tǒng)的故障或誤操作的權(quán)力在任何階段可能導(dǎo)致電力供應(yīng)中斷給客戶。 Therefore, a normal continuous operation of the power system to provide a reliable power supply to the customers is of paramount importance. 因此，一個(gè)正常的電力系統(tǒng)連續(xù)運(yùn)行的，提供可靠的電力供應(yīng)給客戶的重要性是至關(guān)重要的。 Power system stability may be broadly defined as the property of a power system that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance. 電力系統(tǒng)穩(wěn)定，可廣泛定義為干擾財(cái)產(chǎn)的權(quán)力系統(tǒng)，可繼續(xù)經(jīng)營(yíng)的狀態(tài)下正常運(yùn)行的平衡條件和后向遭受恢復(fù)一個(gè)可以接受的平衡狀態(tài)。 Instability in a power system may be manifested in many different ways depending on the system configuration and operating mode. 在電力系統(tǒng)的不穩(wěn)定可能會(huì)表現(xiàn)在經(jīng)營(yíng)方式和多種不同的方式取決于系統(tǒng)配置。 Traditionally, the stability problem has been one of maintaining synchronous operation. Since power systems rely on synchronous machines for generation of electrical power, a necessary condition for satisfactory system operation is that all synchronous machines remain in synchronism or, colloquially "in step". This aspect of stability is influenced by the dynamics of generator rotor an***s and power-an*** relationships, and then referred to " rotor an*** stability ". 傳統(tǒng)上，穩(wěn)定性問題一直是一個(gè)保持同步運(yùn)行。由于電力系統(tǒng)的發(fā)電電力，一個(gè)令人滿意的系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的必要條件是，依靠同步電機(jī)同步電機(jī)都留在同步或通俗的“步驟”。這一方面是受穩(wěn)定的發(fā)電機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)子的動(dòng)態(tài)角度和功角的關(guān)系，然后提到“轉(zhuǎn)子角穩(wěn)定”。