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The latter two factors have a varying tendency to reduce the proportion of unstable material.后兩個(gè)因素往往會極大地影響其組成含量的比率。Relief地貌 also influences the nature of a gravel deposit,for example ,
1. 磨擦系數(shù) coefficient of friction 在兩物體接觸面上的摩擦力與法向壓力的比值。2. 質(zhì)量密度 mass density來源: examda 單位體積材料(包括巖石和土)的質(zhì)量,簡稱密度。3. 重力密度 force (weight) density
1. 混合結(jié)構(gòu) mixed structure 不同材料的構(gòu)件或部件混合組成的結(jié)構(gòu)。2. 板柱結(jié)構(gòu) slab-colume system 由樓板和柱(無梁)組成承重體系的房屋結(jié)構(gòu),如升板結(jié)構(gòu)、無梁樓蓋結(jié)構(gòu)、整體預(yù)應(yīng)力板柱結(jié)構(gòu)。3. 框架結(jié)構(gòu) frame struc
airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting
第四節(jié) 橋、涵洞和隧道術(shù)語 1. 橋 bridge 為公路、鐵路、城市道路、管線、行人等跨越河流、山谷、道路等天然或人工障礙而建造的架空建筑物。2. 簡支梁橋 simple supported girder bridge 以簡支梁作為橋跨結(jié)構(gòu)的主要承重構(gòu)件
土木工程外文翻譯加譯文
急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上傳,萬分感謝!!! 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上傳,萬分感謝!!! 展開 我來答 2
要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須是英文,然后帶有中文翻譯4.論文中要出現(xiàn)摘要和參考文獻(xiàn)郵箱是1178171161@qq 如果查收符合以上要求,立即采納,不勝感激 要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須
土木工程施工是土木工程專業(yè)的一門主干課。其主要任務(wù)是研究土木工程施工技術(shù)和施工組織的一般規(guī)律;土木工程中主要工種工程施工方法和工藝原理;施工項(xiàng)目科學(xué)的組織原理以及土木工程施工中的新技術(shù)、新材料、新工藝的發(fā)展和應(yīng)用。新的《土木工
there is no marketing functions, shown in Figure 1, this senior management of absence has brought a lot of harm. First
Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance F.M. Scherer affiliation not provided to SSRN David Ross Robinson & Cole, LLP Abstract:Provides a systematic presentation of the economic field of industrial organ
翻譯不用,原文就好。關(guān)于建筑施工方面。必 1 2010-06-08 求一份土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)最好帶中文翻譯的 13 2011-01-12 求一篇土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)帶中文翻譯,3000字左右 2012-01-21 求兩篇土木工程的外文文獻(xiàn),最好關(guān)于施工組織設(shè)
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da
求一份土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)最好帶中文翻譯的
要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須是英文,然后帶有中文翻譯4.論文中要出現(xiàn)摘要和參考文獻(xiàn)郵箱是1178171161@qq 如果查收符合以上要求,立即采納,不勝感激 要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須
一個(gè)總承包商承擔(dān)一個(gè)建筑整體的責(zé)任。從事分包的承建商則需承擔(dān)建造工程所需的各個(gè)工作。例如,管道承包商安裝水管,電業(yè)承辦商安裝電氣系統(tǒng),電梯則由電梯承包商安裝。他們與總承包商簽訂合同,費(fèi)用由總承包商支付。 有時(shí)候,除了一個(gè)總承包
土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程,它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱。它既指建設(shè)的對象,即建造在地上,地下,水中的工程設(shè)施,也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測,設(shè)計(jì)施工,保養(yǎng),維修等專業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類社
我的 急求一篇關(guān)于土木工程的英語論文,翻譯成中文3000字左右!!! 100 我來答 1個(gè)回答 #話題# 勞動節(jié)純純『干貨』,等你看!開心辭典_ 2010-03-04 · TA獲得超過6003個(gè)贊 知道大有可為答主 回答量:1951 采納率:0%
我的 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,不少于3000個(gè)單詞 5 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上傳,萬分感謝!!! 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上
急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,不少于3000個(gè)單詞
我的 5000字關(guān)于土木工程類的英語論文,并帶中文翻譯 要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須是英文,然后帶有中文翻譯4.論文中要出現(xiàn)摘要和參考文獻(xiàn)郵箱是1178171161@qq 如果查收符合以上要求,立即采納,不勝感激
David Ross Robinson & Cole, LLP Abstract:Provides a systematic presentation of the economic field of industrial organization, which is concerned with how productive activities are brought into harmony with the demand
有的朋友麻煩上傳,萬分感謝!!! 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上傳,萬分感謝!!! 展開 我來答 2個(gè)回答 #熱議# 你發(fā)朋友圈會使用部分人可見功能嗎?夢色馨緣 2014-03-29 · TA獲
業(yè)主的代表,會給建設(shè)工程作最后檢查。如果他們滿意并認(rèn)為符合合同文件,那么業(yè)主接受該項(xiàng)目,并交給總承包商的一個(gè)占用證書,這表明,總承包商已完成建設(shè),建設(shè)部門再根據(jù)建筑規(guī)范的要求發(fā)放最后付款。請采納。 已贊過 已踩過< 你對這個(gè)回
Engineersconsider many factors when developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements; design and test the robot抯 components; integrate
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da
誰能給我給我兩篇土木工程英語文獻(xiàn)要有翻譯的!要求1000字
土木工程施工是土木工程專業(yè)的一門主干課。其主要任務(wù)是研究土木工程施工技術(shù)和施工組織的一般規(guī)律;土木工程中主要工種工程施工方法和工藝原理;施工項(xiàng)目科學(xué)的組織原理以及土木工程施工中的新技術(shù)、新材料、新工藝的發(fā)展和應(yīng)用。新的《土木工
2014-08-06 土木工程外文文獻(xiàn) 21 2015-05-18 求一篇關(guān)于土木工程的外文翻譯或者文獻(xiàn)。 2015-05-04 求土木工程畢業(yè)論文外文參考文獻(xiàn) 2013-05-06 求一篇關(guān)于土木工程的外國文獻(xiàn)(5000)帶翻譯的。最好是pd 2012-06-13 土木工程
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da
2013-06-01 求一篇土木工程的外文文獻(xiàn),要求帶中英文翻譯,外文文獻(xiàn)參考文獻(xiàn) 2010-06-12 求一篇土木工程英文文獻(xiàn)翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)用的 23 2017-03-02 求一篇土木工程英文原版文獻(xiàn)+翻譯(英文15000字符以上,4更多類似問題 > 為你
建筑承包商雇用的勞動力,一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中從事技術(shù)活,如木工,管道工,工會成員和電工工會,小工則執(zhí)行了分配給他們的工作。在施工期間,一切工作都要驗(yàn)收。因此,業(yè)主通過建筑師和監(jiān)理經(jīng)常進(jìn)行督查。可能是名為工程員,建筑
[1] Allen H G and Bulson P S.Background to Bucking London Mcraw-Hill(UK) 1980 [2] David. I. Keli Lan Yang Aihua. Project Management Strategy and Implementation. China Machine Press 2002 (The
土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)
恩,好的 吧,土木工程畢業(yè)論文參考文獻(xiàn)資料有一份.我只知道中文的,你可以看下(土木工程),OA期刊,可以免費(fèi)下載文獻(xiàn)
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to federal levels, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. History of civil engineering Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations. .不謝。望采納。。。。。。
自己去sciencedirect,springerlink等外文數(shù)據(jù)庫下載啊 或者到知網(wǎng),維普等中文數(shù)據(jù)庫下載 很多的,校園網(wǎng)內(nèi)免費(fèi)獲取 校園網(wǎng)外可以利用goo***學(xué)術(shù)搜索,有部分能免費(fèi)下載 僅供參考~
一般要有這樣幾部分組成:提出問題,闡明基本概念和基本觀念;分析問題,說明為什么要堅(jiān)持你的觀點(diǎn);解決問題,拿出解決問題方案,至于順序,你可根據(jù)你的文章去定。也就是說論文由論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)、引證、論證、結(jié)論等幾個(gè)部分構(gòu)成。 1、題目 題目應(yīng)恰當(dāng)、準(zhǔn)確地反映本課題的研究內(nèi)容。畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)的中文題目應(yīng)不超過25字,并不設(shè)副標(biāo)題。 2、 摘要與關(guān)鍵詞 摘要:摘要是畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)內(nèi)容的簡要陳述,是一篇具有獨(dú)立性和完整性的短文。摘要應(yīng)包括本設(shè)計(jì)(論文)的創(chuàng)造性成果及其理論與實(shí)際意義。摘要中不宜使用公式、圖表,不標(biāo)注引用文獻(xiàn)編號。避免將摘要寫成目錄式的內(nèi)容介紹。 關(guān)鍵詞:關(guān)鍵詞是供檢索用的主題詞條,應(yīng)采用能覆蓋畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)主要內(nèi)容的通用技術(shù)詞條(參照相應(yīng)的技術(shù)術(shù)語標(biāo)準(zhǔn))。關(guān)鍵詞一般列3~5個(gè),按詞條的外延層次排列(外延大的排在前面)。 3、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)正文 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)正文包括緒論、論文主體及結(jié)論等部分。 (一)選題畢業(yè)論文(設(shè)計(jì))題目應(yīng)符合本專業(yè)的培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)和教學(xué)要求,具有綜合性和創(chuàng)新性。本科生要根據(jù)自己的實(shí)際情況和專業(yè)特長,選擇適當(dāng)?shù)恼撐念}目,但所寫論文要與本專業(yè)所學(xué)課程有關(guān)。 (二)查閱資料、列出論文提綱 題目選定后,要在指導(dǎo)教師指導(dǎo)下開展調(diào)研和進(jìn)行實(shí)驗(yàn),搜集、查閱有關(guān)資料,進(jìn)行加工、提煉,然后列出詳細(xì)的寫作提綱。 (三)完成初稿 根據(jù)所列提綱,按指導(dǎo)教師的意見認(rèn)真完成初稿。 (四)定稿 初稿須經(jīng)指導(dǎo)教師審閱,并按其意見和要求進(jìn)行修改,然后定稿。 首先建議你先列一個(gè)提綱,明確自己的目標(biāo),到底方向在哪里,想寫什么,其實(shí)這是很重要的,即使你覺得你很難寫出一整篇論文,都必須要先明確你的論文想說什么。論文的內(nèi)容都不清楚,又如何去找資料呢? 論文寫作,先不說內(nèi)容,首先格式要正確,一篇完整的畢業(yè)論文,題目,摘要(中英文),目錄,正文(引言,正文,結(jié)語),致謝,參考文獻(xiàn)。學(xué)校規(guī)定的格式,字體,段落,頁眉頁腳,開始寫之前,都得清楚的,你的論文算是寫好了五分之一。然后,選題,你的題目時(shí)間寬裕,那就好好考慮,選一個(gè)你思考最成熟的,可以比較多的閱讀相關(guān)的參考文獻(xiàn),從里面獲得思路,確定一個(gè)模板性質(zhì)的東西,照著來,寫出自己的東西。正文,語言必須是學(xué)術(shù)的語言。一定先列好提綱,這就是框定每一部分些什么,保證內(nèi)容不亂,將內(nèi)容放進(jìn)去,寫好了就。
橋梁式集裝箱起重機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)113 1.前言………………………………………………………………………3 2.主要設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容及參數(shù)……………………………………4 3.主梁結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………5 4.小車機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………7 7.起吊機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)…………………………………………………11 6.支架設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………………14 8.設(shè)計(jì)小結(jié)……………………………………………………………15 9.主要參考文獻(xiàn)…………………………………………………16 10.圖紙文件設(shè)計(jì)前言 起重機(jī)被喻為“巨人之臂”,是廣泛用于國民經(jīng)濟(jì)各部門進(jìn)行物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)和裝卸搬運(yùn)的重要設(shè)備。起重機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)制造,從一個(gè)側(cè)面反映了國家的工業(yè)現(xiàn)代化水平。我國起重機(jī)制造業(yè)奠基于20世紀(jì)50年代。70年代以來,起重機(jī)的類型、規(guī)格、性能和技術(shù)水平獲得很大的發(fā)展。近年來在物流和工業(yè)企業(yè)發(fā)展的帶動下,起重機(jī)行業(yè)進(jìn)入飛速發(fā)展時(shí)期。 起重機(jī)主要分為橋梁式、懸臂式、塔式、龍門式、拉索式、液壓伸縮臂式等形式。本設(shè)計(jì)以橋式雙梁單小車集裝箱起重機(jī)為例,介紹起重機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)思路、設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容以及設(shè)計(jì)方法。 起重機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)主要根據(jù)客戶要求,在符合國家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及機(jī)械工業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中對起重機(jī)的要求下進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)。設(shè)計(jì)方案的選擇主要通過與客戶溝通取得一致意見后確定,設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容主要包括在起重機(jī)的實(shí)際工作環(huán)境下確定起重機(jī)的最大額定載荷、非正常載荷(如沖擊載荷,風(fēng)力載荷、震動載荷等)、操縱形式、使用壽命、檢修方式以及安全等級等;確定起重機(jī)主要零部件的選材以及機(jī)加工和材料處理的方法;確定起重機(jī)的工作級別;確定其主要受力梁的截面形式、截面大小以及梁的材料選擇和加工方法。由于橋梁式起重機(jī)體積和質(zhì)量都比較大,所以在設(shè)計(jì)過程中還應(yīng)考慮起重機(jī)的運(yùn)輸方案和安裝方法。一 主要設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容及參數(shù)1、起重機(jī)首先要確定的是工作級別本設(shè)計(jì)的起重機(jī)用于集裝箱生產(chǎn)制造或物流行業(yè)。 起吊件為生產(chǎn)下線的集裝箱,或物流行業(yè)待裝貨的集裝箱,所以都是空箱。起吊重量為5T 根據(jù)起重機(jī)行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),不管是集裝箱生產(chǎn)行業(yè)還是物流行業(yè)都是生產(chǎn)節(jié)奏比較快的,因此該起重機(jī)的工作級別定為A5級,起吊機(jī)構(gòu)工作級別為M5。2、根據(jù)以上所規(guī)定級別設(shè)置設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容及參數(shù)a.主梁結(jié)構(gòu) 主梁涉及到的主要設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容或參數(shù)主要有:主梁的截面形式、截面大小、所用材料、制作方法、主梁上平面的平面度、側(cè)面的平面度和垂直度、主梁應(yīng)該具有的上拱度,還有主梁上的軌道安裝等等。b.支架結(jié)構(gòu) 支架需要設(shè)計(jì)的主要內(nèi)容和參數(shù)包括:截面形式、截面大小、使用材料、制作方法、支腿的垂直度誤差、支腿與地面的連接方式等等。c.小車機(jī)構(gòu) 小車機(jī)構(gòu)要設(shè)計(jì)的主要內(nèi)容和參數(shù)包括:小車架設(shè)計(jì);起吊機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì);小車行走機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)。根據(jù)起吊重量設(shè)計(jì)小車架截面;根據(jù)所需要元件的安裝位置設(shè)計(jì)小車架的結(jié)構(gòu);根據(jù)工作級別設(shè)計(jì)行走機(jī)構(gòu)中電機(jī)的功率和類型;根據(jù)起吊高度確定卷筒的直徑和長度;根據(jù)工作級別確定主電機(jī)的功率以及減速機(jī)的型號。確定其他一些元件的型號。應(yīng)符合起重機(jī)行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中的相關(guān)內(nèi)容;控制電路屬于電氣范疇在此不予討論。 本文來自: 一流設(shè)計(jì)吧( 16sheji8 ) 詳細(xì)出處參考: http:// 16sheji8 /onews.asp?id=1220
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building types and design A building is closely bound up with people,for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities . Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types sin***-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used . Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center . In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred sin***-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms . Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done. An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms . It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably ** south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on . There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare . 翻譯: 建筑類型和設(shè)計(jì) 建筑物與人們有著緊密的聯(lián)系,他為人們提供必要的空間,用以工作和生活。 根據(jù)適用類型不同,建筑物可以分為兩類:工業(yè)建筑和民用建筑。工業(yè)建筑包括各個(gè)工廠或工業(yè)生產(chǎn)所使用建筑,民用建筑是指那些人們用以居住,就業(yè),教育和其他社會活動的建筑場所。 工業(yè)建筑的廠房可用于采礦業(yè),冶金工業(yè),機(jī)械制造,化學(xué)工業(yè)和紡織工業(yè)等各類領(lǐng)域的加工和制造。廠房可分為兩種類型:單層的和多層的。工業(yè)建筑也屬于建筑的一種。但是,工業(yè)建筑與民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。 民用建筑按使用可分為兩大類:住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要適應(yīng)家庭生活。每個(gè)單位應(yīng)包括至少三個(gè)必要客房:起居室,廚房和廁所。公共建筑可在政治,文化活動,管理工作和其他服務(wù),如學(xué)校,寫字樓,公園,醫(yī)院,商店,車站,劇院,體育館,賓館,展覽館,洗浴池,等等。他們都有著不同的職能,這反過來又需要不同的設(shè)計(jì)類型。 房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的內(nèi)容,但今天人們需要更多的住房內(nèi)容。一個(gè)家庭在進(jìn)入一個(gè)新的社區(qū)后將知道,現(xiàn)有住房不僅要符合其安全,健康和舒適等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。還要考慮其附近是否有相應(yīng)的配套設(shè)施,如食品市場,學(xué)校,商店,圖書館,電影院,以及社區(qū)中心等。 在60年代中期住房最重要的價(jià)值是足夠大的空間和方便的出入交通。大多數(shù)家庭會首選約半英畝面積土地的家庭住宅,這樣將提供足夠的空間的用以業(yè)余活動。在高度工業(yè)化的國家,許多家庭的首選是那種盡可能遠(yuǎn)離市中心商業(yè)圈的住房,即使距離上班地點(diǎn)不得不有一段距離。相當(dāng)多的家庭首選是郊區(qū)的住房,因?yàn)樗麄兊闹饕康氖且h(yuǎn)離噪音,擁擠和混亂。擁有方便的公共交通使得距離不再是一個(gè)決定性因素,因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)人都是開著自己的汽車去上班了。人們現(xiàn)在主要感興趣的是戶型,房間的大小和臥室的數(shù)目。 在工程項(xiàng)目開始之前,要做好建筑設(shè)計(jì)和施工流程,讓人提前知道該建筑建成后是什么樣子以及下一步應(yīng)該做什么。 在建筑設(shè)計(jì)中要特別重視房間的布局,其目的是提供最大的便利與可能的用途。在一個(gè)住宅建筑設(shè)計(jì)中,布局可考慮以下三個(gè)方面: “白天” , “夜晚”和“服務(wù)”。必須注意這些空間區(qū)域之間的連通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐廳,起居室和廚房,但其他房間可能會增加,如書房,并有可能成為一個(gè)大廳。起居室通常是最大的,往往是一個(gè)餐廳,也或可能有廚房、凹室等。 “夜間”房間包括臥室、客房。“服務(wù)”用房間包括廚房,浴室,儲藏室 ,和廁所等。廚房和儲藏室需設(shè)置在一起,以方便其房間功能的使用。 此外,還必須考慮各種客房的朝向問題,當(dāng)然最好盡可能的將那些經(jīng)常使用的房間朝南設(shè)置。然而,在考慮到周圍的環(huán)境和地點(diǎn)、道路等多方面因素,往往很難達(dá)到最佳要求。在解決這些復(fù)雜的問題,還必須按照當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例所涉及的對公共設(shè)施,人口密度,建筑物高度,綠化面積,建筑紅線等的要求,還要考慮到有相鄰建筑的情況,等等。 盡管工業(yè)建筑需要符合當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例但很少有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的工業(yè)樓宇。現(xiàn)代廠房建筑的趨勢是輕質(zhì)、通風(fēng)。一般的鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)或鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的工廠,可以得到一個(gè)“跌”型脊屋頂,把窗戶開向北以便使分布均勻的自然采光不會直射進(jìn)來造成刺眼。
現(xiàn)在的百度翻譯基本能滿足土木工程中英文的翻譯。我論文的英文摘要就是直接百度翻譯的,只需要修改幾個(gè)專業(yè)名詞就可以了。

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