得到老師的確認(rèn)通過后方可翻譯。翻譯的外文文獻(xiàn)應(yīng)主要選自學(xué)術(shù)期刊、學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議的文章、有關(guān)著作及其他相關(guān)材料，應(yīng)與畢業(yè)論文(設(shè)計(jì))主題相關(guān)，并在中文譯文首頁用“腳注”形式注明原文作者及出處，外文原文后應(yīng)附中文譯文。

問題二：如果參考文獻(xiàn)是由**的書翻譯過來的，該怎么寫 格式如下：原作者.譯文名[M].譯者.出版地：出版者，出版年：引文頁碼.問題三：大家做畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的時(shí)候外文翻譯怎么做的 1.確定自己的畢業(yè)課題方向；2.了解自己學(xué)

畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯指的是將外文參考文獻(xiàn)翻譯成中文版本。外文譯文和原件都是畢業(yè)論文中重要的一部分。外文譯文是在得到老師確認(rèn)后，對(duì)外文文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行翻譯，將其轉(zhuǎn)換為自己的母語。原件就是自己搜索到的外文文獻(xiàn)的原文。原件，就是

    （1）文獻(xiàn)翻譯中摘要和關(guān)鍵詞翻譯的格式要求：一般采用宋體五號(hào)字體（其中“摘要”和“關(guān)鍵詞”需要以粗體顯示），行之間的距離設(shè)置為18磅，段落前和段落后的距離設(shè)置為0.5行，對(duì)齊選擇為“兩端對(duì)齊”；

畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯：將外文參考文獻(xiàn)翻譯成中文版本。翻譯要求：1、選定外文文獻(xiàn)后先給指導(dǎo)老師看，得到老師的確認(rèn)通過后方可翻譯。2、選擇外文翻譯時(shí)一定選擇外國作者寫的文章，可從學(xué)校中知網(wǎng)或者外文數(shù)據(jù)庫下載。3、外文翻譯字?jǐn)?shù)

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯的格式是什么?

翻譯:建筑類型和設(shè)計(jì)建筑物與人們有著緊密的聯(lián)系,他為人們提供必要的空間,用以工作和生活。根據(jù)適用類型不同,建筑物可以分為兩類:工業(yè)建筑和民用建筑。工業(yè)建筑包括各個(gè)工廠或工業(yè)生產(chǎn)所使用建筑,民用建筑是指那些人們用以居住,就業(yè),教育

Since the 1920s, the use of public transportation has been reducing obviously, while that of private automobile has increased dramatically.3結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)包括確定結(jié)構(gòu)的最佳比例和給定其組成的要素細(xì)節(jié)尺寸。Structure design

摘要：為了研究連續(xù)型拓?fù)鋬?yōu)化理論在實(shí)際工程中的應(yīng)用，該文給出了一種多層鋼框架支撐體系連續(xù)型拓?fù)鋬?yōu)化設(shè)計(jì)方法?；陟`敏度分析，探討了連續(xù)體結(jié)構(gòu)在多工況荷載作用下、同時(shí)受應(yīng)力和多位移約束的拓?fù)鋬?yōu)化刪除準(zhǔn)則。為保證拓?fù)?/p>

為了降低土方工程費(fèi)用,填方量應(yīng)該等于挖方量,而且挖方地點(diǎn)應(yīng)該盡可能靠近土方量相等的填方地點(diǎn),以減少運(yùn)輸量和填方的二次搬運(yùn)。土方設(shè)計(jì)這項(xiàng)工作落到了從事道路設(shè)計(jì)的工程師的身上,因?yàn)橥练焦こ痰脑O(shè)計(jì)比其他任何工作更能決定工程造價(jià)是否低廉

工程施工包括工程選址、土方工程、地基處理、鋼材裝配、混凝土澆注、瀝青鋪設(shè)和機(jī)電設(shè)備安裝等。通常各個(gè)領(lǐng)域施工程序基本相同,甚至對(duì)不同的工程如建筑、大壩、或飛 **等也是如此。然而對(duì)所有工程每個(gè)領(lǐng)域其重要程度卻不盡相同。Preparation o

The composition of a gravel deposit礫石沉積物 reflects not only the source ****s母巖 of the area from which it was derived but is also influenced by the agents responsible for its formation and the climatic r

airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting

土木工程外文翻譯加譯文

Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance F.M. Scherer affiliation not provided to SSRN David Ross Robinson & Cole, LLP Abstract:Provides a systematic presentation of the economic field of industrial organ

an optimization method for an optimal topology design of multistory steel frame bracing systems is presented.On a sensitivity analysis,

大工再建筑工程中從事技術(shù)活,如木工,管道工,工會(huì)成員和電工工會(huì),小工則執(zhí)行了分配給他們的工作。在施工期間,一切工作都要驗(yàn)收。因此,業(yè)主通過建筑師和監(jiān)理經(jīng)常進(jìn)行督查?？赡苁敲麨楣こ虇T,建筑師或駐地工程師。作為業(yè)主的代表實(shí)地視察。核

求一篇土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯英語漢語都要謝謝3000字油箱、835877276哥哥們可以單獨(dú)發(fā)油箱嗎我一堆同學(xué)都在百度有的已經(jīng)看到這個(gè)帖子了 求一篇土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯 英語漢語都要謝謝 3000字 油箱、 835877276哥哥們 可以單獨(dú)發(fā)油 箱嗎

求一篇土木工程外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯 英語漢語都要謝謝

the structure of life for 50 years.Its main work is divided into four parts: the project in terms of the design construction, construction site, floor plan design, preparation of construction schedule. Calculate

木土工程專業(yè)大體可分為道路與橋梁工程與建筑工程兩個(gè)不同的方向,在職業(yè)生涯中,這兩個(gè)方向的職位既有大體上的統(tǒng)一性,又有細(xì)節(jié)上的具體區(qū)別。總體來說,土木工程專業(yè)的主要就業(yè)方向有以下幾種:1、工程技術(shù)方向代表職位:施工員、建筑

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程，它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱。它既指建設(shè)的對(duì)象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程設(shè)施，也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測(cè)，設(shè)計(jì)施工，保養(yǎng)，維修等專業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類

要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須是英文,然后帶有中文翻譯4.論文中要出現(xiàn)摘要和參考文獻(xiàn)郵箱是1178171161@qq 如果查收符合以上要求,立即采納,不勝感激 要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類的3.必須

我的 急求一篇關(guān)于土木工程的英語論文,翻譯成中文3000字左右!!! 100  我來答 1個(gè)回答 #話題# 勞動(dòng)節(jié)純純『干貨』,等你看!開心辭典_ 2010-03-04 · TA獲得超過6003個(gè)贊 知道大有可為答主 回答量:1951 采納率:0%

可能是名為工程員,建筑師或駐地工程師。作為業(yè)主的代表實(shí)地視察。核查人員必須確保工程符合合同文件的要求,并在安全的條件下進(jìn)行的責(zé)任。這種檢查可作出重復(fù)。此外,驗(yàn)收還是需要一個(gè)或多個(gè)政府機(jī)構(gòu)的代表。他們必須確保工程符合法律要求,并

我的 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,不少于3000個(gè)單詞 5 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上傳,萬分感謝!!! 急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要用。有的朋友麻煩上

急求一篇土木工程畢業(yè)論文英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯,不少于3000個(gè)單詞

一般要有這樣幾部分組成：提出問題，闡明基本概念和基本觀念；分析問題，說明為什么要堅(jiān)持你的觀點(diǎn)；解決問題，拿出解決問題方案，至于順序，你可根據(jù)你的文章去定。也就是說論文由論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)、引證、論證、結(jié)論等幾個(gè)部分構(gòu)成。 1、題目 題目應(yīng)恰當(dāng)、準(zhǔn)確地反映本課題的研究內(nèi)容。畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的中文題目應(yīng)不超過25字，并不設(shè)副標(biāo)題。 2、 摘要與關(guān)鍵詞 摘要：摘要是畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）內(nèi)容的簡要陳述，是一篇具有獨(dú)立性和完整性的短文。摘要應(yīng)包括本設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的創(chuàng)造性成果及其理論與實(shí)際意義。摘要中不宜使用公式、圖表，不標(biāo)注引用文獻(xiàn)編號(hào)。避免將摘要寫成目錄式的內(nèi)容介紹。 關(guān)鍵詞：關(guān)鍵詞是供檢索用的主題詞條，應(yīng)采用能覆蓋畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）主要內(nèi)容的通用技術(shù)詞條（參照相應(yīng)的技術(shù)術(shù)語標(biāo)準(zhǔn)）。關(guān)鍵詞一般列3～5個(gè)，按詞條的外延層次排列（外延大的排在前面）。 3、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）正文 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）正文包括緒論、論文主體及結(jié)論等部分。 （一）選題畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）題目應(yīng)符合本專業(yè)的培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)和教學(xué)要求，具有綜合性和創(chuàng)新性。本科生要根據(jù)自己的實(shí)際情況和專業(yè)特長，選擇適當(dāng)?shù)恼撐念}目，但所寫論文要與本專業(yè)所學(xué)課程有關(guān)。 （二）查閱資料、列出論文提綱 題目選定后，要在指導(dǎo)教師指導(dǎo)下開展調(diào)研和進(jìn)行實(shí)驗(yàn)，搜集、查閱有關(guān)資料，進(jìn)行加工、提煉，然后列出詳細(xì)的寫作提綱。 （三）完成初稿 根據(jù)所列提綱，按指導(dǎo)教師的意見認(rèn)真完成初稿。 （四）定稿 初稿須經(jīng)指導(dǎo)教師審閱，并按其意見和要求進(jìn)行修改，然后定稿。 首先建議你先列一個(gè)提綱，明確自己的目標(biāo)，到底方向在哪里，想寫什么，其實(shí)這是很重要的，即使你覺得你很難寫出一整篇論文，都必須要先明確你的論文想說什么。論文的內(nèi)容都不清楚，又如何去找資料呢？ 論文寫作，先不說內(nèi)容，首先格式要正確，一篇完整的畢業(yè)論文，題目，摘要（中英文），目錄，正文（引言，正文，結(jié)語），致謝，參考文獻(xiàn)。學(xué)校規(guī)定的格式，字體，段落，頁眉頁腳，開始寫之前，都得清楚的，你的論文算是寫好了五分之一。然后，選題，你的題目時(shí)間寬裕，那就好好考慮，選一個(gè)你思考最成熟的，可以比較多的閱讀相關(guān)的參考文獻(xiàn)，從里面獲得思路，確定一個(gè)模板性質(zhì)的東西，照著來，寫出自己的東西。正文，語言必須是學(xué)術(shù)的語言。一定先列好提綱，這就是框定每一部分些什么，保證內(nèi)容不亂，將內(nèi)容放進(jìn)去，寫好了就。
橋梁式集裝箱起重機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)113 1．前言………………………………………………………………………3 2．主要設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容及參數(shù)……………………………………4 3．主梁結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………5 4．小車機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………7 7．起吊機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)…………………………………………………11 6．支架設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………………………14 8．設(shè)計(jì)小結(jié)……………………………………………………………15 9．主要參考文獻(xiàn)…………………………………………………16 10.圖紙文件設(shè)計(jì)前言 起重機(jī)被喻為“巨人之臂”，是廣泛用于國民經(jīng)濟(jì)各部門進(jìn)行物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)和裝卸搬運(yùn)的重要設(shè)備。起重機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)制造，從一個(gè)側(cè)面反映了國家的工業(yè)現(xiàn)代化水平。我國起重機(jī)制造業(yè)奠基于20世紀(jì)50年代。70年代以來，起重機(jī)的類型、規(guī)格、性能和技術(shù)水平獲得很大的發(fā)展。近年來在物流和工業(yè)企業(yè)發(fā)展的帶動(dòng)下，起重機(jī)行業(yè)進(jìn)入飛速發(fā)展時(shí)期。 起重機(jī)主要分為橋梁式、懸臂式、塔式、龍門式、拉索式、液壓伸縮臂式等形式。本設(shè)計(jì)以橋式雙梁單小車集裝箱起重機(jī)為例，介紹起重機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)思路、設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容以及設(shè)計(jì)方法。 起重機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)主要根據(jù)客戶要求，在符合國家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及機(jī)械工業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中對(duì)起重機(jī)的要求下進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)。設(shè)計(jì)方案的選擇主要通過與客戶溝通取得一致意見后確定，設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容主要包括在起重機(jī)的實(shí)際工作環(huán)境下確定起重機(jī)的最大額定載荷、非正常載荷（如沖擊載荷，風(fēng)力載荷、震動(dòng)載荷等）、操縱形式、使用壽命、檢修方式以及安全等級(jí)等；確定起重機(jī)主要零部件的選材以及機(jī)加工和材料處理的方法；確定起重機(jī)的工作級(jí)別；確定其主要受力梁的截面形式、截面大小以及梁的材料選擇和加工方法。由于橋梁式起重機(jī)體積和質(zhì)量都比較大，所以在設(shè)計(jì)過程中還應(yīng)考慮起重機(jī)的運(yùn)輸方案和安裝方法。一 主要設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容及參數(shù)1、起重機(jī)首先要確定的是工作級(jí)別本設(shè)計(jì)的起重機(jī)用于集裝箱生產(chǎn)制造或物流行業(yè)。 起吊件為生產(chǎn)下線的集裝箱，或物流行業(yè)待裝貨的集裝箱，所以都是空箱。起吊重量為5T 根據(jù)起重機(jī)行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，不管是集裝箱生產(chǎn)行業(yè)還是物流行業(yè)都是生產(chǎn)節(jié)奏比較快的，因此該起重機(jī)的工作級(jí)別定為A5級(jí)，起吊機(jī)構(gòu)工作級(jí)別為M5。2、根據(jù)以上所規(guī)定級(jí)別設(shè)置設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容及參數(shù)a.主梁結(jié)構(gòu) 主梁涉及到的主要設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容或參數(shù)主要有：主梁的截面形式、截面大小、所用材料、制作方法、主梁上平面的平面度、側(cè)面的平面度和垂直度、主梁應(yīng)該具有的上拱度，還有主梁上的軌道安裝等等。b.支架結(jié)構(gòu) 支架需要設(shè)計(jì)的主要內(nèi)容和參數(shù)包括：截面形式、截面大小、使用材料、制作方法、支腿的垂直度誤差、支腿與地面的連接方式等等。c.小車機(jī)構(gòu) 小車機(jī)構(gòu)要設(shè)計(jì)的主要內(nèi)容和參數(shù)包括：小車架設(shè)計(jì)；起吊機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)；小車行走機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)。根據(jù)起吊重量設(shè)計(jì)小車架截面；根據(jù)所需要元件的安裝位置設(shè)計(jì)小車架的結(jié)構(gòu)；根據(jù)工作級(jí)別設(shè)計(jì)行走機(jī)構(gòu)中電機(jī)的功率和類型；根據(jù)起吊高度確定卷筒的直徑和長度；根據(jù)工作級(jí)別確定主電機(jī)的功率以及減速機(jī)的型號(hào)。確定其他一些元件的型號(hào)。應(yīng)符合起重機(jī)行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中的相關(guān)內(nèi)容；控制電路屬于電氣范疇在此不予討論。 本文來自: 一流設(shè)計(jì)吧( 16sheji8 ) 詳細(xì)出處參考： http:// 16sheji8 /onews.asp?id=1220
　　剛好我也在做畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì) 把我的給你用吧 　　Traditional Construction Procedures 　　As mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and services. 　　A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor. 　　Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner. 　　Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes. 　　Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and construction. 　　Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their trade. 　　During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals. 　　In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code. 　　Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory building. 　　After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway departments. 　　The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to proceed. 　　Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out construction. 　　Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted away. 　　Next, the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top sur** to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is drained. 　　Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of personnel. 　　As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place, 　　Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and cleaned. 　　The owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements. 　　傳統(tǒng)的施工程序 　　眾所周知，在傳統(tǒng)的施工程序中進(jìn)行施工的承包商。盡管他們想滿足業(yè)主和建筑設(shè)計(jì)師的要求，但是最終還是以賺取利潤為主要目標(biāo)的。因此，他們最初的任務(wù)是對(duì)編寫投標(biāo)價(jià)格的建筑成本進(jìn)行準(zhǔn)確的估計(jì)。這就需要進(jìn)行前期調(diào)查的工作并且做出施工時(shí)間表。等合約批出后，施工方必須提供所有材料并支付其費(fèi)用，設(shè)備，電力，勞動(dòng)力。業(yè)主此時(shí)需要進(jìn)行必要的監(jiān)督。 　　一個(gè)總承包商承擔(dān)一個(gè)建筑整體的責(zé)任。從事分包的承建商則需承擔(dān)建造工程所需的各個(gè)工作。例如，管道承包商安裝水管，電業(yè)承辦商安裝電氣系統(tǒng)，電梯則由電梯承包商安裝。他們與總承包商簽訂合同，費(fèi)用由總承包商支付。 　　有時(shí)候，除了一個(gè)總承包商，還有各種專業(yè)承包商，如電氣和機(jī)械承包商，執(zhí)行工作時(shí)需要與業(yè)主簽訂合同。這種承包商被稱為間接承包商。他們的工作，由總承包商協(xié)調(diào)，但它們都是由業(yè)主直接聯(lián)系。 　　還有些時(shí)候，業(yè)主可以使用設(shè)計(jì)建造方法同時(shí)兼有設(shè)計(jì)和建筑施工單位的職能。這些單位被稱為設(shè)計(jì)建造承包商。這方面的一個(gè)類型的合同聘用的變化是由一戶住宅或低層住宅建筑群的開發(fā)。在房屋建筑設(shè)計(jì)和建造的住房，但設(shè)計(jì)之前需要由購買房屋的業(yè)主完成。 　　施工過程管理往往是困難的。因此，一些業(yè)主會(huì)去尋求專家的協(xié)助，這些專家被稱為專業(yè)施工經(jīng)理，他們具有豐富的施工經(jīng)驗(yàn)。施工經(jīng)理與總承包商進(jìn)行談判，并選擇其中一個(gè)項(xiàng)目。施工經(jīng)理通常還監(jiān)督分包商。在施工期間，它們有助于控制成本，加快運(yùn)送設(shè)備和材料，并保持工作的進(jìn)度。在依法行政，協(xié)助設(shè)計(jì)和建設(shè)的情況下，業(yè)主可以選擇從事建筑項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理。 　　建筑承包商雇用的勞動(dòng)力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中從事技術(shù)活，如木工，管道工，工會(huì)成員和電工工會(huì)，小工則執(zhí)行了分配給他們的工作。 　　在施工期間，一切工作都要驗(yàn)收。因此，業(yè)主通過建筑師和監(jiān)理經(jīng)常進(jìn)行督查。可能是名為工程員，建筑師或駐地工程師。作為業(yè)主的代表實(shí)地視察。核查人員必須確保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的條件下進(jìn)行的責(zé)任。這種檢查可作出重復(fù)。 　　此外，驗(yàn)收還是需要一個(gè)或多個(gè)政府機(jī)構(gòu)的代表。他們必須確保工程符合法律要求，并負(fù)責(zé)檢查與合同文件是否一致。這種視察一般定期或在某些階段施工結(jié)束以后進(jìn)行。地方或國家建設(shè)部門具有管轄權(quán)。這些檢查的目的是確保符合當(dāng)?shù)鼗驀业慕ㄖ?guī)范。 　　以下是傳統(tǒng)多層建筑施工的基本程序。 　　建造開始后合同授予開發(fā)商，業(yè)主可要求開發(fā)商開始施工之前簽約給或之后簽約發(fā)出書面通知的同時(shí)另一部分工作繼續(xù)進(jìn)行。緊接著施工方根據(jù)需要獲取建筑許可證，例如當(dāng)?shù)氐慕ㄔO(shè)，供水，污水處理，政府機(jī)構(gòu)和公路部門。 　　總承包商的計(jì)劃和進(jìn)度詳細(xì)施工作業(yè)以及動(dòng)員項(xiàng)目設(shè)備和人員。分包商得到通知后，做出簽訂合同的意向或授予分包合同書，然后給出在適當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)候進(jìn)行通知。 　　在施工前啟動(dòng)，總承包商要進(jìn)行的一項(xiàng)調(diào)查就是鄰近結(jié)構(gòu)和地形，這些都要記錄在案，并要熟悉當(dāng)?shù)厍闆r。這項(xiàng)調(diào)查結(jié)束以后，隨即進(jìn)行布局建設(shè)。 　　承建商的現(xiàn)場辦事處都建在施工現(xiàn)場或附近。為了安全起見，必須從腳手架上移除的東西，產(chǎn)生的碎片都要運(yùn)走。 　　下一步，該網(wǎng)架是為建設(shè)工程準(zhǔn)備的。這項(xiàng)工作為地下室開挖和基礎(chǔ)開挖的深度，以及公用事業(yè)管道轉(zhuǎn)移找到正確的標(biāo)高。深挖掘，土方支撐，底部排出。 　　建筑開始于基礎(chǔ)上，然后是承重墻和結(jié)構(gòu)框架的施工。**，樓梯，或電梯的安裝，可讓施工人員往返于各個(gè)樓層。此外，可安裝卷揚(yáng)機(jī)來運(yùn)送材料。 　　由于建筑高度的上升，管道，電力管道和線路安裝以及永久地板，外墻，窗戶和構(gòu)造的影響。在適當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)候，永久的電梯安裝。再需要的情況下可以安裝防火卷簾。其次，屋頂?shù)鹊胤揭残枰惭b。 　　精加工工序安裝有包括以下內(nèi)容：天花板，瓷磚，墻板，墻壁鑲板，水管裝置，加熱爐，空氣調(diào)節(jié)設(shè)備，加熱和冷卻室裝置;自動(dòng)扶梯;地板，窗戶玻璃;活動(dòng)板，門;電氣設(shè)備和儀器，包括照明燈具，開關(guān)，變壓器，控制器，遵照項(xiàng)目的圖紙和規(guī)格。外地辦事處，圍欄，橋梁和其他臨時(shí)建筑，公共設(shè)備，如天然氣，電力管道，水管，都連接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物內(nèi)部的打掃和清洗。 　　業(yè)主的代表，會(huì)給建設(shè)工程作最后檢查。如果他們滿意并認(rèn)為符合合同文件，那么業(yè)主接受該項(xiàng)目，并交給總承包商的一個(gè)占用證書，這表明，總承包商已完成建設(shè)，建設(shè)部門再根據(jù)建筑規(guī)范的要求發(fā)放最后付款。
building types and design A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities . Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types sin***-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used . Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center . In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred sin***-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms . Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done. An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms . It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably ** south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on . There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare . 翻譯： 建筑類型和設(shè)計(jì) 建筑物與人們有著緊密的聯(lián)系，他為人們提供必要的空間，用以工作和生活。 根據(jù)適用類型不同，建筑物可以分為兩類：工業(yè)建筑和民用建筑。工業(yè)建筑包括各個(gè)工廠或工業(yè)生產(chǎn)所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人們用以居住，就業(yè)，教育和其他社會(huì)活動(dòng)的建筑場所。 工業(yè)建筑的廠房可用于采礦業(yè)，冶金工業(yè)，機(jī)械制造，化學(xué)工業(yè)和紡織工業(yè)等各類領(lǐng)域的加工和制造。廠房可分為兩種類型：單層的和多層的。工業(yè)建筑也屬于建筑的一種。但是，工業(yè)建筑與民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。 民用建筑按使用可分為兩大類：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要適應(yīng)家庭生活。每個(gè)單位應(yīng)包括至少三個(gè)必要客房：起居室，廚房和廁所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活動(dòng)，管理工作和其他服務(wù)，如學(xué)校，寫字樓，公園，醫(yī)院，商店，車站，劇院，體育館，賓館，展覽館，洗浴池，等等。他們都有著不同的職能，這反過來又需要不同的設(shè)計(jì)類型。 房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的內(nèi)容，但今天人們需要更多的住房內(nèi)容。一個(gè)家庭在進(jìn)入一個(gè)新的社區(qū)后將知道，現(xiàn)有住房不僅要符合其安全，健康和舒適等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。還要考慮其附近是否有相應(yīng)的配套設(shè)施，如食品市場，學(xué)校，商店，圖書館，電影院，以及社區(qū)中心等。 在60年代中期住房最重要的價(jià)值是足夠大的空間和方便的出入交通。大多數(shù)家庭會(huì)首選約半英畝面積土地的家庭住宅，這樣將提供足夠的空間的用以業(yè)余活動(dòng)。在高度工業(yè)化的國家，許多家庭的首選是那種盡可能遠(yuǎn)離市中心商業(yè)圈的住房，即使距離上班地點(diǎn)不得不有一段距離。相當(dāng)多的家庭首選是郊區(qū)的住房，因?yàn)樗麄兊闹饕康氖且h(yuǎn)離噪音，擁擠和混亂。擁有方便的公共交通使得距離不再是一個(gè)決定性因素，因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)人都是開著自己的汽車去上班了。人們現(xiàn)在主要感興趣的是戶型，房間的大小和臥室的數(shù)目。 在工程項(xiàng)目開始之前，要做好建筑設(shè)計(jì)和施工流程,讓人提前知道該建筑建成后是什么樣子以及下一步應(yīng)該做什么。 在建筑設(shè)計(jì)中要特別重視房間的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利與可能的用途。在一個(gè)住宅建筑設(shè)計(jì)中，布局可考慮以下三個(gè)方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服務(wù)”。必須注意這些空間區(qū)域之間的連通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐廳，起居室和廚房，但其他房間可能會(huì)增加，如書房，并有可能成為一個(gè)大廳。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一個(gè)餐廳，也或可能有廚房、凹室等。 “夜間”房間包括臥室、客房?！胺?wù)”用房間包括廚房，浴室，儲(chǔ)藏室 ，和廁所等。廚房和儲(chǔ)藏室需設(shè)置在一起，以方便其房間功能的使用。 此外，還必須考慮各種客房的朝向問題，當(dāng)然最好盡可能的將那些經(jīng)常使用的房間朝南設(shè)置。然而，在考慮到周圍的環(huán)境和地點(diǎn)、道路等多方面因素，往往很難達(dá)到最佳要求。在解決這些復(fù)雜的問題，還必須按照當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例所涉及的對(duì)公共設(shè)施，人口密度，建筑物高度，綠化面積，建筑紅線等的要求，還要考慮到有相鄰建筑的情況，等等。 盡管工業(yè)建筑需要符合當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例但很少有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的工業(yè)樓宇。現(xiàn)代廠房建筑的趨勢(shì)是輕質(zhì)、通風(fēng)。一般的鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)或鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的工廠，可以得到一個(gè)“跌”型脊屋頂，把窗戶開向北以便使分布均勻的自然采光不會(huì)直射進(jìn)來造成刺眼。
　　building types and design 　　A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . 　　As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities . 　　Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types sin***-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used . 　　Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. 　　Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center . 　　In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred sin***-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms . 　　Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done. 　　An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms . 　　It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably ** south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on . 　　There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare . 　　翻譯： 　　建筑類型和設(shè)計(jì) 　　建筑物與人們有著緊密的聯(lián)系，他為人們提供必要的空間，用以工作和生活。 　　根據(jù)適用類型不同，建筑物可以分為兩類：工業(yè)建筑和民用建筑。工業(yè)建筑包括各個(gè)工廠或工業(yè)生產(chǎn)所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人們用以居住，就業(yè)，教育和其他社會(huì)活動(dòng)的建筑場所。 　　工業(yè)建筑的廠房可用于采礦業(yè)，冶金工業(yè)，機(jī)械制造，化學(xué)工業(yè)和紡織工業(yè)等各類領(lǐng)域的加工和制造。廠房可分為兩種類型：單層的和多層的。工業(yè)建筑也屬于建筑的一種。但是，工業(yè)建筑與民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。 　　民用建筑按使用可分為兩大類：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要適應(yīng)家庭生活。每個(gè)單位應(yīng)包括至少三個(gè)必要客房：起居室，廚房和廁所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活動(dòng)，管理工作和其他服務(wù)，如學(xué)校，寫字樓，公園，醫(yī)院，商店，車站，劇院，體育館，賓館，展覽館，洗浴池，等等。他們都有著不同的職能，這反過來又需要不同的設(shè)計(jì)類型。 　　房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的內(nèi)容，但今天人們需要更多的住房內(nèi)容。一個(gè)家庭在進(jìn)入一個(gè)新的社區(qū)后將知道，現(xiàn)有住房不僅要符合其安全，健康和舒適等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。還要考慮其附近是否有相應(yīng)的配套設(shè)施，如食品市場，學(xué)校，商店，圖書館，電影院，以及社區(qū)中心等。 　　在60年代中期住房最重要的價(jià)值是足夠大的空間和方便的出入交通。大多數(shù)家庭會(huì)首選約半英畝面積土地的家庭住宅，這樣將提供足夠的空間的用以業(yè)余活動(dòng)。在高度工業(yè)化的國家，許多家庭的首選是那種盡可能遠(yuǎn)離市中心商業(yè)圈的住房，即使距離上班地點(diǎn)不得不有一段距離。相當(dāng)多的家庭首選是郊區(qū)的住房，因?yàn)樗麄兊闹饕康氖且h(yuǎn)離噪音，擁擠和混亂。擁有方便的公共交通使得距離不再是一個(gè)決定性因素，因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)人都是開著自己的汽車去上班了。人們現(xiàn)在主要感興趣的是戶型，房間的大小和臥室的數(shù)目。 　　在工程項(xiàng)目開始之前，要做好建筑設(shè)計(jì)和施工流程,讓人提前知道該建筑建成后是什么樣子以及下一步應(yīng)該做什么。 　　在建筑設(shè)計(jì)中要特別重視房間的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利與可能的用途。在一個(gè)住宅建筑設(shè)計(jì)中，布局可考慮以下三個(gè)方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服務(wù)”。必須注意這些空間區(qū)域之間的連通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐廳，起居室和廚房，但其他房間可能會(huì)增加，如書房，并有可能成為一個(gè)大廳。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一個(gè)餐廳，也或可能有廚房、凹室等。 “夜間”房間包括臥室、客房。“服務(wù)”用房間包括廚房，浴室，儲(chǔ)藏室 ，和廁所等。廚房和儲(chǔ)藏室需設(shè)置在一起，以方便其房間功能的使用。 　　此外，還必須考慮各種客房的朝向問題，當(dāng)然最好盡可能的將那些經(jīng)常使用的房間朝南設(shè)置。然而，在考慮到周圍的環(huán)境和地點(diǎn)、道路等多方面因素，往往很難達(dá)到最佳要求。在解決這些復(fù)雜的問題，還必須按照當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例所涉及的對(duì)公共設(shè)施，人口密度，建筑物高度，綠化面積，建筑紅線等的要求，還要考慮到有相鄰建筑的情況，等等。 　　盡管工業(yè)建筑需要符合當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘幸?guī)劃條例但很少有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的工業(yè)樓宇?，F(xiàn)代廠房建筑的趨勢(shì)是輕質(zhì)、通風(fēng)。一般的鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)或鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的工廠，可以得到一個(gè)“跌”型脊屋頂，把窗戶開向北以便使分布均勻的自然采光不會(huì)直射進(jìn)來造成刺眼。
現(xiàn)在的百度翻譯基本能滿足土木工程中英文的翻譯。我論文的英文摘要就是直接百度翻譯的，只需要修改幾個(gè)專業(yè)名詞就可以了。