technical measures to achieve the proper roadbed construction purposes and to ensure the quality of the road subgrade.Keywords: technical quality for roadbed construction 一定正確，翻譯過(guò) 參考資料：Goo***翻譯

翻譯:建筑類(lèi)型和設(shè)計(jì)建筑物與人們有著緊密的聯(lián)系,他為人們提供必要的空間,用以工作和生活。根據(jù)適用類(lèi)型不同,建筑物可以分為兩類(lèi):工業(yè)建筑和民用建筑。工業(yè)建筑包括各個(gè)工廠或工業(yè)生產(chǎn)所使用建筑,民用建筑是指那些人們用以居住,就業(yè),教育

we first study the application of the protection pipe sliding method for the construction. This paper introduces the protection pipe outside sliding method installation "steel set of directly buried steam pipeline s

found problems in a timely manner and process engineers, QC engineers contact address. Found assembled, the unsuitability of Engineers should be reported. Process engineers explained, if necessary, modify, according

與成本控制,最重要的決議的質(zhì)量,在設(shè)備完成設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃階段,而不是在施工期間。正是在這種初步階段,即組件配置、物料規(guī)范和功能性能決定。施工過(guò)程的質(zhì)量控制,由大量的確保符合原先的設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃的決定。

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, da

我們比以往任何時(shí)候更多地依賴(lài)于團(tuán)隊(duì)建設(shè)承包商和發(fā)明人誰(shuí)設(shè)計(jì)和建造以及維護(hù)復(fù)雜的環(huán)境，環(huán)繞著我們的日常生活。一個(gè)民間的施工隊(duì)伍的工作/工程師以上僅僅是這些基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)方面。他們有很多活動(dòng)，包括起草，決策，人機(jī)交互，通

求一篇施工方面文章及英文翻譯 謝

我把我寫(xiě)的那篇給你吧 反正我也交了C) Civil Engineering Research Institute of Gansu, opportunities and threat analysis 1. The opportunity to analyze the external environment since 1992, China's construction market has expande

我的 求土木工程論文相關(guān)的翻譯 180 英文原版,出處,作者。5000字以上。英文原版需要期刊號(hào)。需要中英文對(duì)應(yīng)!中英文均需要5000字以上! 英文原版,出處,作者。5000字以上。英文原版需要期刊號(hào)。需要中英文對(duì)應(yīng)! 中英文均需要5000字以

airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting

我的 求土木工程專(zhuān)業(yè)論文,英語(yǔ)的(有翻譯的更好) 要求字?jǐn)?shù)4000——5000具體描寫(xiě)的是一項(xiàng)某某工程的更好, 要求字?jǐn)?shù)4000——5000具體描寫(xiě)的是一項(xiàng)某某工程的更好, 展開(kāi)  我來(lái)答 2個(gè)回答 #熱議# 張桂梅幫助的只有女生嗎?mypa

要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類(lèi)的3.必須是英文,然后帶有中文翻譯4.論文中要出現(xiàn)摘要和參考文獻(xiàn)郵箱是1178171161@qq 如果查收符合以上要求,立即采納,不勝感激 要求如下:1.字?jǐn)?shù)50002.內(nèi)容是關(guān)于土木工程類(lèi)的3.必須

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程，它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱(chēng)。它既指建設(shè)的對(duì)象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程設(shè)施，也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測(cè)，設(shè)計(jì)施工，保養(yǎng)，維修等專(zhuān)業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類(lèi)社

我急需一篇關(guān)于土木工程的中英文翻譯論文 5000字 畢業(yè)用的

Build a project facilities to want to pass commonly survey, design and construction three stages, need to use engineering geological prospecting, geological investigation Hydrological geology exploration and engineering

你知道用英文怎樣告訴他人,工程師和土木工程師是干什么的嗎?SO,here:Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between

lack of marketing mechanism is currently the Civil Engineering Research Institute of Gansu high-level management positions, there is no marketing functions, shown in Figure 1, this senior management of absence has brought a

What kind of interesting work are other Civil Engineers doing right now?I'm working on an excavation for a building that is part of a Physics Experiment. We blasted our way 80ft deep into granite. The ho

Civil engineering is constructed in various construction projects referred to. It is intended to " Military " project and corresponding. In English, Civil Engineering also includes water conservancy engineering, port

Civil engineering is the oldest branch of the profession of engineering after military engineering. Many of the important things in our lives that we take for granted are the product of civil engineering.The con

土木工程英語(yǔ)求職信范文篇一：Distinguished leadership of your pany:Hello!Thank you very much for sparing the time to review my cover letter, I wish to give me the opportunity. As a Civil Engineering Bridge gr

求土木工程專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)作文一片,內(nèi)容如下

你知道用英文怎樣告訴他人,工程師和土木工程師是干什么的嗎?SO,here:Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between

civil engineering Profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general public, including bridges, canals, dams, harbors, lighthouses, roads, tunnels, and environmental works (e.g., water-

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直譯是民用工程，它是建造各種工程的統(tǒng)稱(chēng)。它既指建設(shè)的對(duì)象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程設(shè)施，也指應(yīng)用的材料設(shè)備和進(jìn)行的勘測(cè)，設(shè)計(jì)施工，保養(yǎng)，維修等專(zhuān)業(yè)技術(shù)。土木工程隨著人類(lèi)社

土木工程是中國(guó)普通高等學(xué)校本科專(zhuān)業(yè)。Civil engineering is an undergraduate major in Chinese colleges and universities.土木工程的目的是形成人類(lèi)生產(chǎn)或生活所需要的、功能良好且舒適美觀的空間和通道。The purpose of civil en

Civil engineering is the oldest branch of the profession of engineering after military engineering. Many of the important things in our lives that we take for granted are the product of civil engineering.The con

Build a project facilities to want to pass commonly survey, design and construction three stages, need to use engineering geological prospecting, geological investigation Hydrological geology exploration and engineering s

從土木工程專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)中學(xué)到什么英文短文

On these will hinge the future property acquisitions and settlements made by the right-of-way agents. 由地段權(quán)政府代表做出的今后所有權(quán)的獲得和結(jié)算都將依此而定。Large-scale topographic maps or other special

a large number of new entrants making a relatively large number of engineering consulting firm, and the annual increase rapidly, out of less. Engineering

Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. Civil engineering might be considered properly commencing between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia when humans started

土木工程是一個(gè)概念，涉及的設(shè)計(jì)，建造和保養(yǎng)身體和自然的建筑環(huán)境。民間建筑和工程的行為，包括橋梁，道路，運(yùn)河， **，水壩和其他建筑物。這些都只是僅是民用建設(shè)工程，是幾個(gè)例子。土木工程是最古老的工程后，軍事工程學(xué)科

Engineersconsider many factors when developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements; design and test the robot抯 components; integrate

求1000字左右的土木工程英語(yǔ)文章 帶翻譯的

建筑 對(duì)大型建筑項(xiàng)目，如摩天大樓，起重機(jī)在建筑工程領(lǐng)域和土木工程特別重要，包括建造或裝配的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施。遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不是一個(gè)單一的活動(dòng)，大規(guī)模的建設(shè)是一個(gè)壯舉。這項(xiàng)工作通常是由項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理進(jìn)行管理，由施工經(jīng)理，設(shè)計(jì)工程師，建筑

土木工程是一門(mén)學(xué)科，專(zhuān)業(yè)工程的設(shè)計(jì)，施工和維護(hù)自然的物理和環(huán)境建設(shè)，包括橋梁，道路，河渠，堤壩和建筑物的工程協(xié)議。土木工程是最古老的軍事工程后，工程學(xué)科，它被定義為區(qū)分軍事工程非軍事工程。這是傳統(tǒng)分解成若干子學(xué)科

建筑藝術(shù)是指按照美的規(guī)律,運(yùn)用建筑藝術(shù)獨(dú)特的藝術(shù)語(yǔ)言,使建筑形象具有文化價(jià)值和審美價(jià)值,具有象征性和形式美,體現(xiàn)出民族性和時(shí)代感。 以其功能性特點(diǎn)為標(biāo)準(zhǔn),建筑藝術(shù)可分為紀(jì)念性建筑、宮殿陵墓建筑、宗教建筑、住宅建筑、園林建筑、生產(chǎn)

在依法行政,協(xié)助設(shè)計(jì)和建設(shè)的情況下,業(yè)主可以選擇從事建筑項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理。建筑承包商雇用的勞動(dòng)力,一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中從事技術(shù)活,如木工,管道工,工會(huì)成員和電工工會(huì),小工則執(zhí)行了分配給他們的工作。在施工期間,一切工作都要驗(yàn)收

If You Build It …People say the government should be run more like a business. So imagine yourself as CEO. Your bridges are crumbling. Your air-traffic control system doesn’t use GPS. The Society of Ci

求一篇關(guān)于土木工程房屋建筑方面的英文文章

金木水火土。
The urban river embankment discuss the ecological construction Anonymous XXXXXXXX Abstract: the urban river embankment construction as the object, discuss the current social background, analyses and compares the river embankment design of traditional methods and characteristics of ecological methods, and puts forward three modes of ecological design and their advantages and disadvantages, and expounds the present situation of the ecological construction in domestic bank and future prospects. Keywords: the bank; Ecology; Design way; Domestic situation Text: A, background River Banks part is the amphibious interlaced transition belt, has the remarkable edge effect. Here are active substances, nutrient and energy flow, offer a habitat for a variety of creatures. Natural state Banks often species richness, productivity high. The traditional embankment design often sin*** ? 一、背景 河流的堤岸部分是水陸交錯(cuò)的過(guò)渡地帶，具有顯著的邊緣效應(yīng)。這里有活躍的物質(zhì)、養(yǎng)分和能量的流動(dòng)，為多種生物提供了棲息地。自然狀態(tài)下的堤岸往往物種豐富、生產(chǎn)力高。 傳統(tǒng)的堤岸設(shè)計(jì)往往會(huì)單純從防洪角度出發(fā)，采用土堤或者土石混合堆砌起來(lái)高高的堤岸。它的優(yōu)點(diǎn)在于高度的可靠性，結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)后加起防護(hù)堤岸抗流水沖刷能力顯著增強(qiáng)。對(duì)于洪水暴發(fā)頻繁、侵蝕嚴(yán)重的區(qū)段，這樣的設(shè)計(jì)無(wú)可厚非，而對(duì)于一般河流堤岸的修建，這樣的設(shè)計(jì)則顯得缺乏環(huán)境的美化和綠化，同時(shí)也破壞許多對(duì)生態(tài)起重要作用的自然因素，如破壞植被與河床間的聯(lián)系，造成沖刷侵蝕轉(zhuǎn)移等。 另外，河流作為城市風(fēng)貌不可多得的珍惜資源，也是城市風(fēng)貌的特色要素，它的景觀塑造顯得十分必要。同時(shí)，堤岸景觀建設(shè)必然使濱河地區(qū)土地價(jià)值提升，濱水開(kāi)發(fā)的高投資回報(bào)的特點(diǎn)更增強(qiáng)了對(duì)城市堤岸景觀建設(shè)的需求。 二、需求——堤岸的生態(tài)化建設(shè) 河流堤岸作為城市中最鄰近河流的區(qū)域，是城市與河流的銜接線(xiàn)，它的景觀規(guī)劃是提高城市生活品質(zhì)的需要，也是豐富城市景觀的需要。 生態(tài)化建設(shè)，它的根本思路是運(yùn)用自然本身抗干擾和自我修復(fù)的能力來(lái)處理人與自然的關(guān)系。生態(tài)設(shè)計(jì)方法不同于傳統(tǒng)用人工的結(jié)構(gòu)和形式來(lái)取代自然的方法，而是用自然的結(jié)構(gòu)和形式來(lái)順應(yīng)自然的進(jìn)程。 將河岸與河道在生態(tài)上聯(lián)系起來(lái)，也就實(shí)現(xiàn)了物質(zhì)、養(yǎng)分、能量的交流：對(duì)于生物，它提供了合適的棲息地；植物根系可固著土壤，枝葉可截留雨水，過(guò)濾地表逕流，抵抗流水沖刷，從而起到保護(hù)堤岸、增加堤岸結(jié)構(gòu)的穩(wěn)定性、凈化水質(zhì)、涵養(yǎng)水源的作用，而且隨著時(shí)間的推移，這些作用被不斷加強(qiáng)。同時(shí)，生態(tài)化建設(shè)以自然的外貌出現(xiàn)，容易與環(huán)境取得協(xié)調(diào)，造價(jià)也較低，不需要長(zhǎng)期的維護(hù)管理。 三、河流堤岸生態(tài)化設(shè)計(jì)方式 河流堤岸生態(tài)化設(shè)計(jì)，要遵守生態(tài)設(shè)計(jì)的原則，注重地方性、保護(hù)與節(jié)約自然資本、讓自然做功、顯露自然，主要體現(xiàn)在對(duì)地域氣候環(huán)境、河流地質(zhì)地貌、水文變化的適應(yīng)，對(duì)河流生態(tài)環(huán)境的考慮，對(duì)堤岸地形的處理和對(duì)筑堤材料的選擇和構(gòu)造方式方面。 1） 人工類(lèi)： 傳統(tǒng)方法是采用塊石或混凝土塊磚等堆砌?？稍诖嘶A(chǔ)上加以改進(jìn)以適應(yīng)河流景觀設(shè)計(jì)的需求。 a) 塊石或混凝土塊磚干砌，不用砂漿。這樣在砌塊之間就留有空隙，為后期濱河植物的生長(zhǎng)提供了空間。隨著時(shí)間的推移，堤岸會(huì)逐漸呈現(xiàn)出自然的風(fēng)貌。 b) 堤岸采用臺(tái)階式分級(jí)，臺(tái)階面上的空間加以利用，種植植物。 當(dāng)然這兩種改進(jìn)方法對(duì)于河岸處現(xiàn)有植被仍存在一定的不良影響，人工痕跡也過(guò)于明顯。 2） 自然類(lèi)： 充分利用堤岸植被原型，可直接將適用于濱河地帶生長(zhǎng)的植被種植于堤岸上，利用植物的根、莖、葉來(lái)穩(wěn)固堤岸，防止侵蝕、控制沉積的同時(shí)也為生物提供了棲息地。 3） 人工自然相結(jié)合 綜合了以上兩種方法的優(yōu)點(diǎn)，具有人工結(jié)構(gòu)的穩(wěn)定性和自然的外貌，見(jiàn)效快、生態(tài)效益好，以下為常見(jiàn)的兩種類(lèi)型： a) 種植植物的堆石 將由大小不同的石塊組成的堆石置于與水接觸的土壤表面，再把活體切枝插入石堆中使斜坡更加穩(wěn)定。根系可提高強(qiáng)度，植被可遮蓋石塊，使堤岸外貌更加自然。 b) 與植物結(jié)合使用的插孔式混凝土塊 將預(yù)制的混凝土塊以連鎖的形式置于岸底的淺渠中，再將植物切枝或植株扦插于混凝土塊之間和堤岸上部，其上覆土壓實(shí)，再播種草本植物。 堤岸生態(tài)化建設(shè)也存在一定的局限性。如：選用的材料及建造方法不同，堤岸的防護(hù)能力相差很大，需要運(yùn)用多學(xué)科知識(shí)認(rèn)真分析，這就為設(shè)計(jì)人員提出了更大的挑戰(zhàn)；建造初期若受到強(qiáng)烈干擾，則會(huì)影響到以后防護(hù)作用的發(fā)揮等。這也就對(duì)河流堤岸的生態(tài)化設(shè)計(jì)提出了更高的要求。 四、國(guó)內(nèi)現(xiàn)狀 1）省會(huì)城市 在我國(guó)省會(huì)城市及計(jì)劃單列市中有近80％進(jìn)行了堤岸景觀規(guī)劃。（參考文獻(xiàn)[3]） 城 市 項(xiàng)目名稱(chēng) 城 市 項(xiàng)目名稱(chēng) 北 京 長(zhǎng)河城市水系統(tǒng)綜合治理 南 寧 堤岸園工程 長(zhǎng) 沙 湘江風(fēng)光帶 寧 波 濱江大道沿江景觀工程 成 都 府南河綠化工程 上 海 外灘、陸家嘴濱江大道 福 州 閔江江濱公園 沈 陽(yáng) 渾河觀光旅游帶 廣 州 珠江二沙段堤岸景觀、芳村長(zhǎng)堤建設(shè) 太 原 汾河公園 貴 陽(yáng) 南明河景觀綠化工程 天 津 海河堤岸改造工程 哈爾濱 松花江南岸沿江風(fēng)景長(zhǎng)廊 武 漢 漢口江灘一二期工程 昆 明 盤(pán)龍江中段濱水生態(tài)景觀建設(shè) 西 安 灞河大水大綠工程 蘭 州 黃河風(fēng)情線(xiàn) 重 慶 南濱路濱江旅游觀光大道 從規(guī)劃后建成情況看，這些城市河流堤岸景觀項(xiàng)目都得到了當(dāng)?shù)卣c市民的肯定。在這些項(xiàng)目中，堤岸既可成為當(dāng)?shù)刈罹呶Φ某鞘泄珗@，如太原的汾河公園和福州的江濱公園；堤岸也可成為市民日常休閑活動(dòng)的熱點(diǎn)地段，如南寧的堤路園和武漢的漢口江灘工程；堤岸還可成為城市最具特色的地段，如重慶的南濱路濱江旅游觀光大道；堤岸更可成為城市旅游的熱點(diǎn)，如上海的外灘和陸家嘴濱江大道?？傊?jīng)過(guò)景觀規(guī)劃的堤岸已成為當(dāng)?shù)刈罹咛厣牡貐^(qū)。 從建設(shè)效果看，相對(duì)堤岸的原來(lái)面貌而言，統(tǒng)計(jì)資料中的這些景觀工程都是較成功的，都成為當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘嘘P(guān)注的熱點(diǎn)，成為當(dāng)?shù)卣恼?jī)工程，成為當(dāng)?shù)氐拿裥墓こ?。城市河流堤岸通過(guò)景觀規(guī)劃，有效地改善了濱河地段的環(huán)境，并帶動(dòng)濱河地段的開(kāi)發(fā)。但必須清醒地認(rèn)識(shí)到，這些城市堤岸景觀項(xiàng)目規(guī)劃并非盡善盡美，也存在這樣或那樣的問(wèn)題，仍有待完善。 2）中小城市 城市經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)力的強(qiáng)大決定了其城市建設(shè)水平的高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和高水平。 中小城市河流堤岸景觀與統(tǒng)計(jì)資料中的城市存在較大的差距，存在更多的問(wèn)題。特別是由于資金問(wèn)題，堤岸景觀是，純?nèi)斯ぃ瑺顟B(tài)的鋼筋混凝土防洪堤，或保持自然防洪狀態(tài)的土石堤，沒(méi)有經(jīng)過(guò)景觀規(guī)劃，易造成城市資源的極大浪費(fèi)。 五、前景 目前，河流景觀建設(shè)，特別是城市河流景觀建設(shè)，在中國(guó)正方興未艾；在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家中也是一個(gè)久盛不衰的話(huà)題。 回顧發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家河流景觀建設(shè)的歷史，自20世紀(jì)70年代以來(lái)，隨著人們環(huán)境意識(shí)的普遍增強(qiáng)，重視河流景觀的生態(tài)功能已成為一個(gè)時(shí)代的呼喚，河流景觀建設(shè)的生態(tài)設(shè)計(jì)方法也已得到了空前的重視和發(fā)展。他山之石可以攻玉，借鑒發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家已經(jīng)形成的成熟的理念和做法，可以使我們少走彎路，搭上隆隆前進(jìn)的生態(tài)建設(shè)之車(chē)。
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to federal levels, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. History of civil engineering Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations. 土木工程是一門(mén)學(xué)科，專(zhuān)業(yè)工程的設(shè)計(jì)，施工和維護(hù)自然的物理和環(huán)境建設(shè)，包括橋梁，道路，河渠，堤壩和建筑物的工程協(xié)議。土木工程是最古老的軍事工程后，工程學(xué)科，它被定義為區(qū)分軍事工程非軍事工程。這是傳統(tǒng)分解成若干子學(xué)科包括環(huán)境工程，巖土工程，結(jié)構(gòu)工程，交通工程，市政工程或城市，水資源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，測(cè)量，施工工程。土木工程需要在所有層次上進(jìn)行：在從市政公用部門(mén)通過(guò)聯(lián)邦的水平，并在私營(yíng)部門(mén)，個(gè)別業(yè)主通過(guò)向國(guó)際公司 土木工程的歷史 土木工程是物理和科學(xué)原理的應(yīng)用，它的歷史是錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的聯(lián)系在物理學(xué)和數(shù)學(xué)的了解整個(gè)歷史的進(jìn)步。由于土木工程是一個(gè)廣泛的行業(yè)，包括一些獨(dú)立的專(zhuān)門(mén)的子學(xué)科，它的歷史是聯(lián)系在一起的結(jié)構(gòu)，材料科學(xué)，地理，地質(zhì)，土壤，水文，環(huán)境，機(jī)械和其他領(lǐng)域的知識(shí)。 在整個(gè)歷史上最古老的和中世紀(jì)的建筑設(shè)計(jì)和施工進(jìn)行了如石匠和木匠手藝，上升到建筑師的角色。知識(shí)是保留在很少的行會(huì)和進(jìn)步所取代。構(gòu)筑物，道路和基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施存在的重復(fù)，并在規(guī)模上升的增量。 對(duì)科學(xué)方法的物理和數(shù)學(xué)問(wèn)題適用于土木工程最早的例子之一是阿基米德在公元前3世紀(jì)，包括阿基米德的原則，鞏固我們的浮力的認(rèn)識(shí)，如阿基米德螺旋切實(shí)可行的解決辦法的工作。婆羅門(mén)，印度數(shù)學(xué)家，用在公元7世紀(jì)算法的基礎(chǔ)上，印度教，阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字，挖掘（卷）計(jì)算。
留給郵箱 發(fā)給你
已經(jīng)發(fā)了，請(qǐng)查收?？赡軙?huì)在垃圾郵件里。
1、提供一些資料解釋為各種不同類(lèi)型的石灰 2、給你評(píng)論的優(yōu)勢(shì)和劣勢(shì)砌體的工作
土木工程是中國(guó)普通高等學(xué)校本科專(zhuān)業(yè)。 Civil engineering is an undergraduate major in Chinese colleges and universities. 土木工程的目的是形成人類(lèi)生產(chǎn)或生活所需要的、功能良好且舒適美觀的空間和通道。 The purpose of civil engineering is to form a comfortable and beautiful space and channel with good functions required by human production or life. 它既是物質(zhì)方面的需要，也有象征精神方面的需求。 It is not only a material need,but also a spiritual need. 隨著社會(huì)的發(fā)展，工程結(jié)構(gòu)越來(lái)越大型化、復(fù)雜化，超高層建筑、特大型橋梁、巨型大壩、復(fù)雜的地鐵系統(tǒng)不斷涌現(xiàn)，滿(mǎn)足人們的生活需求，同時(shí)也演變?yōu)樯鐣?huì)實(shí)力的象征。 With the development of society, engineering structures are becoming more and more large and complex. Super high-rise buildings,especially large bridges, large dams and complex subway systems are emerging to meet people's living needs. At the same time,they have evolved into a symbol of social strength. 土木工程需要解決的根本問(wèn)題是工程的安全，使結(jié)構(gòu)能夠抵抗各種自然或人為的作用力。 The fundamental problem to be solved in civil engineering is the safety of the project,so that the structure can resist various natural or man-made operation capabilities. 任何一個(gè)工程結(jié)構(gòu)都要承受自身重量，以及承受使用荷載和風(fēng)力的作用，濕度變化也會(huì)對(duì)土木工程結(jié)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生力作用。 Any engineering structure must bear its own weight and accept the action of service load and wind. The change of humidity will also have a hard work on the civil engineering structure. 在地震區(qū)，土木工程結(jié)構(gòu)還應(yīng)考慮抵御地震作用。 In the earthquake area,the civil engineering structure should also consider resisting earthquake. 此外，爆炸、振動(dòng)等人為作用對(duì)土木工程的影響也不能忽略。 In addition,the impact of explosion and vibration on civil engineering can not be ignored.
civil engineering Profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general public, including bridges, canals, dams, harbors, lighthouses, roads, tunnels, and environmental works (e.g., water-supply systems). The modern field includes power plants, aircraft and airports, chemical-processing plants, and water-treatment facilities. Civil engineering today involves site investigations and feasibility studies, structural design and analysis, construction, and facilities maintenance. The design of engineering works requires the application of design theory from many fields (e.g., hydraulics, thermodynamics, nuclear physics). Research in structural analysis and the technology of materials such as steel and concrete has opened the way for new concepts and greater economy of materials. The engineer's analysis of a building problem determines the structural system to be used. Structural designs are rigorously analyzed by computers to determine if they will withstand loads and natural forces. 土木工程 設(shè)計(jì)和修建各種公用建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)工程設(shè)施的科學(xué)技術(shù)，這些工程包括橋梁、水壩、港口、燈塔、道路、隧道和環(huán)境工程(如供水系統(tǒng))。現(xiàn)代這個(gè)領(lǐng)域還包括：發(fā)電廠、航空港、化學(xué)處理廠和污水處理設(shè)備等?，F(xiàn)在土木工程涉及的范圍還包括場(chǎng)地的測(cè)量和研究、結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)和分析、建造，以及設(shè)備的維護(hù)。工程設(shè)計(jì)的工作需要應(yīng)用許多方面的設(shè)計(jì)理論(如水力學(xué)、熱力學(xué)和核物理等)。結(jié)構(gòu)分析和材料技術(shù)的研發(fā)(諸如鋼和混凝土)已開(kāi)發(fā)出更新穎的觀念和更經(jīng)濟(jì)的材料。工程師在分析一種建筑問(wèn)題時(shí)，就已決定該用何種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)。計(jì)算機(jī)可精確分析結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)以判定結(jié)構(gòu)體是否承受得起載重量和自然力量。
我畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的時(shí)候翻譯過(guò)英文論文，不過(guò)只有3000字，不知道行不行，如果需要給我發(fā)信息。
Improved nonlinear plastic hinge analysis of space frame structures J.Y. Richard Liew a,*, H. Chen a, N.E. Shanmugam a, W.F. Chen b a Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Singapore b School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA Received 5 January 1999; received in revised form 17 August 1999; accepted 25 August 1999 Abstract This paper is concerned with second-order plastic hinge analysis of three-dimensional frame structures. The beam–column formulation is based on the use of stability interpolation functions for the transverse displacements, and considers the elastic coupling effects between axial, flexural and torsional displacements. The developed computer program can be used to predict accurately the elastic flexural buckling load of columns and frames by modelling each physical member as one element. It can also be used to predict the elastic buckling loads associated with axial-torsional and lateral-torsional instabilities, which are essential for predicting the nonlinear behaviour of space frame structures. The member bowing effect and initial out-of-straightness are also considered so that the nonlinear spatial behaviour of structures can be captured with fewer elements per member. Material nonlinearity is modelled by using the concentrated plastic hinge approach. Plastic hinge between the member ends is allowed to occur. Numerical examples including both geometric and material nonlinearities are used to demonstrate the robustness, accuracy and efficiency of the proposed analytical method and computer program. Ó 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Advanced analysis; Buckling; Nonlinear analysis; Plastic hinges; Space frames; Instability 1. Introduction Two-dimensional (2-D) plastic hinge analysis of plane frames composed of members with compact section, fully braced out-of-plane, has been the subject for investigation in recent years. The theory for advanced inelastic analysis of rigid and semi-rigid 2-D frames has been well developed and verified by tests [1,2]. These analysis methods fulfil the requirements for the prediction of member strength and stability, with some constraints, satisfying the conventional column and beam–column design limit-state checks. Although there have been much work on the plastic hinge analysis of 3-D frame structures, the issues related to different theoretical and numerical formulations and their accuracy and efficiency in solving large frameworks are not addressed well. The research presented in this paper is an extension of advanced analysis for 2-D frames [2] to 3-D frames [3– 5], reflecting the current trend towards the rationalisation of advanced analysis procedures. * Corresponding 改進(jìn)非線(xiàn)性塑性鉸空間框架結(jié)構(gòu)的分析 摘要： 這份研究報(bào)告表明三維的框架結(jié)構(gòu)與二維邏輯性塑性鉸的關(guān)聯(lián)，梁柱公式化的表述并嵌入橫斷面移動(dòng)為基準(zhǔn)，并考慮軸力、彎曲和扭力的移位之間的關(guān)系。發(fā)達(dá)的計(jì)算機(jī)程序作出通過(guò)每個(gè)物質(zhì)成分作為一個(gè)基本部件做模型的塔器和框架可彎曲的負(fù)載量，它也能預(yù)報(bào)可彎曲負(fù)載量與軸向扭力和橫向扭力的不穩(wěn)定性的關(guān)聯(lián)，這對(duì)預(yù)報(bào)非線(xiàn)性空間結(jié)構(gòu)的作用是必不可少的，以便非線(xiàn)性空間結(jié)構(gòu)的性能和部分成分一些原理能被輸入計(jì)算機(jī)。重要的非線(xiàn)性通過(guò)使用濃縮的塑性鉸方式被制作模型，塑性鉸和成分末端是容許存在。數(shù)值的例子包括集合學(xué)和重要的非線(xiàn)性，兩者習(xí)慣于證明目的的分析方法和電腦程序的穩(wěn)定性，精確性。
Health care A new prescription for the poor 為貧窮者新開(kāi)的處方 America is developing a two-tier health system, one for those with private insurance, the other for the less well-off 美國(guó)正在發(fā)展一個(gè)雙重的健康系統(tǒng)，一重是為那些有個(gè)人保險(xiǎn)的人群，而另一重則是為那些不那么富裕的人群 Oct 8th 2011 | NEW YORK | from the print edition “IT’S time for Dancing with the Stars!”, a woman announces enthusiastically. At this New York health centre, wedged between housing projects to the east and Chinatown to the west, “dancing with the stars” means dancing with a physical therapist. An old man stands up with a nurse and begins a determined samba. “是時(shí)候和明星一起跳舞了！”一位女士滿(mǎn)懷熱情地宣告。在這個(gè)坐落于房屋工程的西面，唐人街東面的紐約健康中心，“和明星起舞”的意思是和一位物理治療師跳舞。一位老者和一個(gè)護(hù)士站起來(lái)，開(kāi)始跳事先確定好的桑巴舞。 Comprehensive Care Management (CCM), which runs this centre, tries to keep old people active. To do so, explains Joseph Healy, the chief operating officer, is in the company’s best interest. The government pays CCM a capped rate for the care of its members. If someone gets sick, his health costs rise and the company’s margin shrinks. Mr Healy argues that the system is the best way to provide good care at a low cost. Increasingly others seem to agree. 經(jīng)營(yíng)這個(gè)中心的綜合護(hù)理管理部門(mén)（CCM）努力保持老人們的活力。約瑟夫-海莉，首席運(yùn)營(yíng)官解釋說(shuō)，這樣做符合公司 的最佳利益。政府給這個(gè)部門(mén)一個(gè)封頂?shù)慕蛸N來(lái)讓他們照顧這些人。如果有人生病了，他的健康成本就會(huì)上升，公司的利潤(rùn)就會(huì)萎縮。海莉先生確定說(shuō)這個(gè)系統(tǒng)能夠 在一個(gè)低成本上提供最佳的護(hù)理。其他人也逐漸同意這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)。 Medicaid, America’s health programme for the poor, is in the process of being transformed. Over the next three years, New York will move its entire Medicaid population into “managed care”, paying companies a set rate to tend to the poor, rather than paying a fee for each service. New York is not alone. States from California to Mississippi are expanding managed care. It is the culmination of a steady shift in the way most poor Americans receive their health-care treatment. 公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助，即美國(guó)的窮人健康計(jì)劃，正在被改造的過(guò)程中。在接下來(lái)的 三年內(nèi)，紐約將把整個(gè)接受窮人健康計(jì)劃的人群納入“管理關(guān)懷”之中，付給公司們一個(gè)事先定好的費(fèi)用來(lái)照顧那些窮人，而不是按照項(xiàng)目來(lái)付費(fèi)。紐約不是唯一這 樣做的州。加州，密西西比州正在拓展管理關(guān)懷計(jì)劃。這代表一種正在進(jìn)行中的穩(wěn)步轉(zhuǎn)變，即大部分貧窮美國(guó)人接受健康關(guān)懷方式的轉(zhuǎn)變。 Medicaid is America’s sin*** biggest health programme. This year roughly one in five Americans will be covered by Medicaid for a month or more. It gobbles more federal and local money than any state programme, other than education. Costs will rise even more when Barack Obama’s health-care reform expands the programme by easing eligibility rules in 2014. Congress’s “supercommittee” is already considering cuts. However, there are more immediate pressures behind the present drive for change. 公 共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助是美國(guó)最大的單一健康計(jì)劃。今年，五個(gè)美國(guó)人中的一個(gè)就會(huì)被納入該計(jì)劃一個(gè)月或更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間。除了教育之外，它比其他任何州的財(cái)政計(jì)劃耗去更多聯(lián)邦 和地方的經(jīng)費(fèi)。當(dāng)2014年奧巴馬的健康保險(xiǎn)改革放寬適用人群而使整個(gè)計(jì)劃更加龐大的時(shí)候，成本將會(huì)進(jìn)一步上升。眾議院的“超級(jí)委員會(huì)”已經(jīng)在考慮削減經(jīng) 費(fèi)。然而，選擇這種變化，將會(huì)有更多即刻的壓力存在。 Enrolment in Medicaid jumped during the downturn, from 42.7m in December 2007 to 50.3m in June 2010. Mr Obama’s stimulus bill helped to pay for some of this, but that money has dried up. Faced with gaping deficits, some desperate governors slashed payments to hospitals and doctors, or refused to pay for trips to the dentist or oculist. But much the most important result has been structural: the expansion of managed care. 公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃的參與人數(shù)在經(jīng)濟(jì)滑坡期間從2007年 12月的 4270萬(wàn)人跳到了2010年6月的5030萬(wàn)人。奧巴馬先生的經(jīng)濟(jì)刺激經(jīng)費(fèi)能夠幫助付掉其中的一部分，但是錢(qián)已經(jīng)被用光。面對(duì)資金短缺，一些絕望的州長(zhǎng) 砍掉了給醫(yī)院和醫(yī)生的補(bǔ)助，或是拒絕支付牙醫(yī)和眼科醫(yī)生的旅行費(fèi)用。但是，更多地，最重要的結(jié)果是結(jié)構(gòu)上的：管理關(guān)懷的拓展。 States have dabbled in managed care for decades. The trend accelerated in the 1990s, with the share of Medicaid patients under this form of care reaching 72% by 2009. Now, however, there is a strong push for the remainder. States that did not have managed care, such as Louisiana, are introducing it. Other states are extending it to people previously deemed off limits: California and New York, for example, are moving the elderly and disabled into that system of care. Texas is targeting more than 400,000 Medicaid beneficiaries in the Rio Grande Valley. Local politicians had resisted the move, nervous that care might deteriorate. But the yawning deficit meant that they were overruled. 各個(gè)州涉足管理關(guān)懷已經(jīng)有幾 十年的歷史了。這個(gè)趨勢(shì)在90年代得到**發(fā)展，在2009年前使用這種護(hù)理方式的公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助病人占到了72%?，F(xiàn)在，對(duì)于剩下的人，這也是很強(qiáng)的推動(dòng) 力。像路易斯安那州這樣沒(méi)有管理關(guān)懷的州正在引進(jìn)管理關(guān)懷。其他州也把這個(gè)拓展到原先被認(rèn)為不適用的人群：舉例說(shuō)像加州和紐約州，正在把老人和殘障人士納 入這個(gè)系統(tǒng)中，德州的目標(biāo)是在格蘭德河谷超過(guò)400000公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助收益人群。地方政治家反對(duì)這個(gè)舉動(dòng)，他們擔(dān)心這個(gè)護(hù)理系統(tǒng)將會(huì)變質(zhì)。但是巨大的赤字 意味著他們的觀點(diǎn)注定要被批駁。 The result is a country with two distinct tiers of health care. Most Americans with private insurance are still horrified by thoughts of health-management organisations and prefer to pay fees for each medical service. For the poor, managed care is becoming the norm. 結(jié)果就是一個(gè)國(guó)家有兩套截然不同的健康保險(xiǎn)系統(tǒng)。大多數(shù)有個(gè)人保險(xiǎn)的美國(guó)人仍舊害怕那些健康管理組織的想法而寧愿為單獨(dú)的醫(yī)療服務(wù)付費(fèi)。對(duì)于窮人來(lái)說(shuō)，管理關(guān)懷已經(jīng)成為一種常規(guī)。 Advocates of managed care have high expectations. First, they hope that it will make costs more predictable. Second, they believe that the change will improve patients’ health. In managed care, a patient has a network of doctors and specialists. If the programme works properly, doctors can monitor all aspects of care, in contrast to the fragmented fee-for-service system. The contracts that states have with firms can set standards for quality. Texas, for instance, will cut 5% from a company’s payment if it does not meet what is required. 管理關(guān)懷的鼓吹者有著很高的 期待。首先，他們希望這能讓成本變得可以預(yù)測(cè)，其次，他們相信，這個(gè)改變可以改善病人的健康。在管理關(guān)懷中，一個(gè)病人有一個(gè)由醫(yī)生和專(zhuān)家組成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。如果 這個(gè)計(jì)劃運(yùn)行良好，醫(yī)生可以監(jiān)測(cè)關(guān)懷的各個(gè)方面，相對(duì)于分離的的按服務(wù)付錢(qián)的系統(tǒng)來(lái)說(shuō)。州政府和公司的合同可以為質(zhì)量定下標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。德州，舉例說(shuō)，將會(huì)在付款 中扣除5%如果公司沒(méi)有達(dá)到要求的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。 The next step is to integrate care for those eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare, the federal programme for the old. These “duals” account for almost 40% of Medicaid’s costs and just 15% of its population. “If managed care can really deliver better care than fee-for-service”, says Diane Rowland, chair of the commission that advises Congress on Medicaid, “this is the population that could prove it.” 下一步是整合那些同時(shí)符合公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助和長(zhǎng)者醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助計(jì)劃（聯(lián)邦老人醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助）的人群。這些“雙符合”人群占據(jù)了將近40%的公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ) 助成本和僅僅15%的人口數(shù)量?！叭绻芾黻P(guān)懷能真正比按項(xiàng)目付費(fèi)帶來(lái)更好的服務(wù)”，戴安-羅蘭德，委員會(huì)（指導(dǎo)國(guó)會(huì)在公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助政策上進(jìn)行決策）主任 說(shuō)：“這是一群能證明管理關(guān)懷可行的人?！? But some, such as Norma Vescovo, are sceptical. As the head of the non-profit Independent Living Centre of Southern California (ILCSC), Ms Vescovo serves Medicaid patients with severe health problems. Over the years she has often sued California on policies that she thinks will hurt her vulnerable clients. On October 3rd her case moved to the Supreme Court. 但是一些人，例如像諾瑪-凡斯科夫就對(duì)此表示懷疑。作為非盈利的南加州獨(dú)立生活中心主任，凡斯科夫女士服務(wù)于那些有嚴(yán)重健康問(wèn)題的接受公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助的病人。在這些年間，她經(jīng)?？馗婕又菡谝恍┱呱蠒?huì)傷害她的一些脆弱的客戶(hù)。在10月3日，她的案子被移到了上訴法院。 The outcome of Douglas v Independent Living Centre will have profound implications for the future of Medicaid. Ms Vescovo’s suit concerns cuts to hospitals and doctors. But the case will also guide the course of managed care. If ILCSC and its co-plaintiffs win, private groups will continue to be able to challenge states on policies they think violate federal Medicaid law. Ms Vescovo, who argues that California’s payment cuts would eviscerate her clients’ access to services, worries that under managed care the disabled might not be able to see the specialists they need. 道格拉斯 v 獨(dú)立生活中心的結(jié)果將會(huì)對(duì)公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助有深遠(yuǎn)的意義。凡斯科夫女士的訴訟影響到醫(yī)院和醫(yī)生的津貼削減。但是這個(gè)案子將會(huì)引領(lǐng)管理關(guān)懷的進(jìn)程。如果中心和其 他原告勝訴，私人團(tuán)體將會(huì)繼續(xù)在那些他們認(rèn)為違反聯(lián)邦法律的政策上挑戰(zhàn)州政府。凡斯科夫女士認(rèn)為說(shuō)加州的支付削減計(jì)劃會(huì)讓她的客戶(hù)失去得到服務(wù)的機(jī)會(huì)，她 還擔(dān)心，在管理關(guān)懷之下，那些殘障人士可能不能見(jiàn)到那些他們需要的專(zhuān)家。 The question is how to supervise the experiments with managed care that are being carried out in various states. To date, Medicaid beneficiaries have been able to challenge the states in court. However, if the Supreme Court rules against ILCSC, that avenue will be closed. The Centres for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) technically can intervene if states do not provide proper access to care. In reality, CMS has few tools to do so. 問(wèn) 題是怎么監(jiān)管在不同州試運(yùn)行的管理關(guān)懷。到目前為止，公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助受益者已經(jīng)能夠在法庭中挑戰(zhàn)政府。然而，如果上訴法庭結(jié)果不利于中心，那么這條路將會(huì)被 關(guān)閉。如果州政府沒(méi)有提供合適的關(guān)懷的話(huà)，公共醫(yī)療補(bǔ)助和長(zhǎng)者醫(yī)療關(guān)懷中心理論上是能對(duì)此進(jìn)行干涉，但事實(shí)上，他們沒(méi)有太多辦法。 “I’m a big fan of managed care”, says Sara Rosenbaum, a professor at George Washington University, “but this transformation may happen with almost no federal oversight.” Medicaid beneficiaries are vulnerable, in worse health than Americans as a whole. Companies may strug*** to cut costs and provide good care as well. If states do not draft their contracts properly, or fail to be vigilant in monitoring patients’ health, their experiment in managed care could be a disaster. On the other hand, if states are careful they could provide an answer to the question that has vexed America for years: how to provide good, cheap health care. “我是 管理關(guān)懷的擁護(hù)者”，薩拉-羅森博姆，一位喬治華盛頓大學(xué)教授說(shuō)，“但是這種轉(zhuǎn)變可能在沒(méi)有聯(lián)邦監(jiān)管的情況下發(fā)生?！惫册t(yī)療補(bǔ)助的受益者和你脆弱，健康 程度整體上比一般美國(guó)人要差。公司可能在削減成本的同時(shí)掙扎著同樣提供良好的服務(wù)。如果州政府們不好好起草他們的合同，或沒(méi)有警覺(jué)地監(jiān)控病人的健康的話(huà)， 他們?cè)诠芾黻P(guān)懷上的實(shí)驗(yàn)可能會(huì)是一場(chǎng)災(zāi)難。另一方面，如果州政府們認(rèn)真的話(huà)，他們能為那個(gè)困擾美國(guó)人多年的問(wèn)題提供答案，即怎么提供優(yōu)質(zhì)的便宜的健康關(guān) 懷。
Electric Power Systems 電力系統(tǒng) The modern society depends on the electricity supply more heavily than ever before. 現(xiàn)代社會(huì)的電力供應(yīng)依賴(lài)于更多地比以往任何時(shí)候。 It can not be imagined what the world should be if the electricity supply were interrupted all over the world. 它無(wú)法想象的世界應(yīng)該是什么，如果電力供應(yīng)中斷了世界各地。 Electric power systems (or electric energy systems), providing electricity to the modern society, have become indispensable components of the industrial world. 電力系統(tǒng)（或電力能源系統(tǒng)），提供電力到現(xiàn)代社會(huì)，已成為不可缺少的組成部分產(chǎn)業(yè)界的。 The first complete electric power system (comprising a generator, cable, fuse, meter, and loads) was built by Thomas Edison – the historic Pearl Street Station in New York City which began operation in September 1882. 第一個(gè)完整的電力系統(tǒng)（包括發(fā)電機(jī)，電纜，熔斷器，計(jì)量，并加載）的托馬斯愛(ài)迪生所建-站紐約市珍珠街的歷史始于1882年9月運(yùn)作。 This was a DC system consisting of a steam-engine-driven DC generator supplying power to 59 customers within an area roughly 1.5 km in radius. The load, which consisted entirely of incandescent lamps, was supplied at 110 V through an underground cable system. 這是一個(gè)半徑直流系統(tǒng)組成的一個(gè)蒸汽發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)的直流發(fā)電機(jī)面積約1.5公里至59供電范圍內(nèi)的客戶(hù)。負(fù)載，其中包括完全的白熾燈，為V提供110通過(guò)地下電纜系統(tǒng)。 Within a few years similar systems were in operation in most large cities throughout the world. With the development of motors by Frank Sprague in 1884, motor loads were added to such systems. This was the beginning of what would develop into one of the largest industries in the world. In spite of the initial widespread use of DC systems, they were almost completely superseded by AC systems. By 1886, the limitations of DC systems were becoming increasingly apparent. They could deliver power only a short distance from generators. 在一個(gè)類(lèi)似的系統(tǒng)在大多數(shù)大城市在世界各地運(yùn)行數(shù)年。隨著馬達(dá)的弗蘭克斯普拉格發(fā)展在1884年，電機(jī)負(fù)載被添加到這些系統(tǒng)。這是什么開(kāi)始發(fā)展成為世界上最大的產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。在最初的直流系統(tǒng)廣泛使用盡管如此，他們幾乎完全被空調(diào)系統(tǒng)所取代。到1886年，直流系統(tǒng)的局限性也日益明顯。他們可以提供功率只有很短的距離從發(fā)電機(jī)。 To keep transmission power losses ( I 2 R ) and voltage drops to acceptable levels, voltage levels had to be high for long-distance power transmission. Such high voltages were not acceptable for generation and consumption of power; therefore, a convenient means for voltage transformation became a necessity. 為了保持發(fā)射功率損失（我2 R）和電壓下降到可接受的水平，電壓等級(jí)，必須長(zhǎng)途輸電高。如此高的電壓不發(fā)電和電力消耗可以接受的，因此，電壓轉(zhuǎn)換成為一個(gè)方便的手段的必要性。 The development of the transformer and AC transmission by L. Gaulard and JD Gibbs of Paris, France, led to AC electric power systems. 在發(fā)展的變壓器，法國(guó)和交流輸電由L.巴黎戈拉爾和JD吉布斯導(dǎo)致交流電力系統(tǒng)。 In 1889, the first AC transmission line in North America was put into operation in Oregon between Willamette Falls and Portland. 1889年，第一次在北美交流傳輸線(xiàn)將在俄勒岡州波特蘭之間威拉梅特大瀑布和實(shí)施。 It was a sin***-phase line transmitting power at 4,000 V over a distance of 21 km. With the development of polyphase systems by Nikola Tesla, the AC system became even more attractive. By 1888, Tesla held several patents on AC motors, generators, transformers, and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents to these early inventions, and they formed the basis of the present-day AC systems.這是一個(gè)單相線(xiàn)路傳輸功率為4,000公里，超過(guò)21 V系統(tǒng)的距離。隨著交流的發(fā)展多相系統(tǒng)由尼古拉特斯拉，成為更具吸引力的。通過(guò)1888年，特斯拉舉行交流多項(xiàng)專(zhuān)利電動(dòng)機(jī)，發(fā)電機(jī)，變壓器和輸電系統(tǒng)。西屋公司購(gòu)買(mǎi)了這些早期的發(fā)明專(zhuān)利，并形成了系統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)，現(xiàn)在的交流。 In the 1890s, there was considerable controversy over whether the electric utility industry should be standardized on DC or AC. By the turn of the century, the AC system had won out over the DC system for the following reasons: 在19世紀(jì)90年代，有很大的爭(zhēng)議或交流電力行業(yè)是否應(yīng)該統(tǒng)一于直流。到了世紀(jì)之交的，在交流系統(tǒng)贏得了原因出在下面的直流系統(tǒng)為： （1）Voltage levels can be easily transformed in AC systems, thus providing the flexibility for use of different voltages for generation, transmission, and consumption. （1）電壓水平可以很容易地改變了空調(diào)系統(tǒng)，從而提供了傳輸?shù)撵`活性，發(fā)電用不同的電壓和消費(fèi)。 （2）AC generators are much simpler than DC generators. （2）交流發(fā)電機(jī)簡(jiǎn)單得多比直流發(fā)電機(jī)。 （3）AC motors are much simpler and cheaper than DC motors. （三）交流電機(jī)和電機(jī)便宜簡(jiǎn)單得多，比直流。 The first three-phase line in North America went into operation in 1893——a 2,300 V, 12 km line in southern California. 前三個(gè)階段的美國(guó)北線(xiàn)投產(chǎn)于1893年- 1 2300五，南加州12公里路線(xiàn)研究。 In the early period of AC power transmission, frequency was not standardized. 在電力傳輸初期交流，頻率不規(guī)范。 Many different frequencies were in use: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133 Hz. 有許多不同頻率的使用：25，50，60，125，和133赫茲。 This poses a problem for interconnection. Eventually 60 Hz was adopted as standard in North America, although 50 Hz was used in many other countries. 這對(duì)互連的問(wèn)題。最后60赫茲標(biāo)準(zhǔn)獲得通過(guò)，成為美國(guó)在北美，雖然是50赫茲在許多其他國(guó)家使用。 The increasing need for transmitting large amounts of power over longer distance created an incentive to use progressively high voltage levels. To avoid the proliferation of an unlimited number of voltages, the industry has standardized voltage levels. In USA, the standards are 115, 138, 161, and 230 kV for the high voltage (HV) class, and 345, 500 and 765 kV for the extra-high voltage (EHV) class. In China, the voltage levels in use are 10, 35, 110 for HV class, and 220, 330 (only in Northwest China) and 500 kV for EHV class . 較長(zhǎng)的距離越來(lái)越需要大量的電力傳輸多激勵(lì)他們逐步使用高壓的水平。為了避免電壓增殖數(shù)量無(wú)限，業(yè)界標(biāo)準(zhǔn)電壓水平。在美國(guó)，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是115，138， 161，和230千伏的高電壓（高壓）類(lèi)，345，500和765千伏級(jí)的特高電壓（超高壓）。在中國(guó)，各級(jí)使用電壓為10，35，110級(jí)高壓， 220，中國(guó)330（僅在西北）和500千伏超高壓類(lèi)。 The first 750 kVtransmission line will be built in the near future in Northwest China. 第一個(gè)750 kVtransmission線(xiàn)將建在不久的將來(lái)在中國(guó)西北地區(qū)。 With the development of the AC/DC converting equipment, high voltage DC (HVDC) transmission systems have become more attractive and economical in special situations. 隨著交流的發(fā)展/直流轉(zhuǎn)換設(shè)備，高壓直流高壓直流（HVDC）傳輸系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)成為更具吸引力的經(jīng)濟(jì)和情況特殊。 The HVDC transmission can be used for transmission of large blocks of power over long distance, and providing an asynchronous link between systems where AC interconnection would be impractical because of system stability consideration or because nominal frequencies of the systems are different. 在高壓直流輸電可用于輸電塊以上的大長(zhǎng)途電話(huà)，并提供不同系統(tǒng)間的異步連接在AC聯(lián)網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)將是不切實(shí)際的，因?yàn)榉€(wěn)定考慮，或因標(biāo)稱(chēng)頻率的系統(tǒng)。 The basic requirement to a power system is to provide an uninterrupted energy supply to customers with acceptable voltages and frequency. 基本要求到電源系統(tǒng)是提供一個(gè)不間斷的能源供應(yīng)，以客戶(hù)可接受的電壓和頻率。 Because electricity can not be massively stored under a simple and economic way, the production and consumption of electricity must be done simultaneously. A fault or misoperation in any stages of a power system may possibly result in interruption of electricity supply to the customers. 由于電力無(wú)法大量?jī)?chǔ)存在一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的方法和經(jīng)濟(jì)，電力的生產(chǎn)和消費(fèi)必須同時(shí)進(jìn)行。系統(tǒng)的故障或誤操作的權(quán)力在任何階段可能導(dǎo)致電力供應(yīng)中斷給客戶(hù)。 Therefore, a normal continuous operation of the power system to provide a reliable power supply to the customers is of paramount importance. 因此，一個(gè)正常的電力系統(tǒng)連續(xù)運(yùn)行的，提供可靠的電力供應(yīng)給客戶(hù)的重要性是至關(guān)重要的。 Power system stability may be broadly defined as the property of a power system that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance. 電力系統(tǒng)穩(wěn)定，可廣泛定義為干擾財(cái)產(chǎn)的權(quán)力系統(tǒng)，可繼續(xù)經(jīng)營(yíng)的狀態(tài)下正常運(yùn)行的平衡條件和后向遭受恢復(fù)一個(gè)可以接受的平衡狀態(tài)。 Instability in a power system may be manifested in many different ways depending on the system configuration and operating mode. 在電力系統(tǒng)的不穩(wěn)定可能會(huì)表現(xiàn)在經(jīng)營(yíng)方式和多種不同的方式取決于系統(tǒng)配置。 Traditionally, the stability problem has been one of maintaining synchronous operation. Since power systems rely on synchronous machines for generation of electrical power, a necessary condition for satisfactory system operation is that all synchronous machines remain in synchronism or, colloquially "in step". This aspect of stability is influenced by the dynamics of generator rotor an***s and power-an*** relationships, and then referred to " rotor an*** stability ". 傳統(tǒng)上，穩(wěn)定性問(wèn)題一直是一個(gè)保持同步運(yùn)行。由于電力系統(tǒng)的發(fā)電電力，一個(gè)令人滿(mǎn)意的系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的必要條件是，依靠同步電機(jī)同步電機(jī)都留在同步或通俗的“步驟”。這一方面是受穩(wěn)定的發(fā)電機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)子的動(dòng)態(tài)角度和功角的關(guān)系，然后提到“轉(zhuǎn)子角穩(wěn)定”。